European States in the 15th and 16th Centuries: Rise of Monarchies
The Rise of European States in the 15th and 16th Centuries
In Europe of the 15th and 16th centuries, significant changes occurred that led to the strengthening of monarchies and the conquest of new territories. These events marked the beginning of what is known as the Modern Age.
The development of the bourgeoisie, the invention of the printing press, a new mindset, and a new artistic direction contributed to the rise of Humanism and the Renaissance.
Economic Shifts and the Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies
The 14th century was a period of economic hardship, famine, and epidemics. These factors disrupted the medieval world, causing a shortage of farm labor and a rise in prices, which negatively impacted the profits and power of feudal lords.
In contrast, the 15th century saw economic expansion, driven by population growth and increased agricultural productivity. Kings seized this opportunity to regain control and establish authoritarian monarchies. This period also witnessed a redevelopment of the West, the revival of Roman Law (which recognized a single legislator), and the assertion of royal power over the nobility.
Strategies for Strengthening Monarchies
Monarchies employed several strategies to consolidate their power:
- Territorial Unification: They pursued territorial unification through military conquest or marriage alliances, creating increasingly powerful states.
- Standing Armies: They established standing armies, commanded by the aristocracy, achieving military independence for the monarchy.
- Administrative Centralization: They centralized administration by appointing officials, judges, and magistrates as representatives of royal power.
- Strategic Alliances: They forged alliances with other organizations, with ambassadors playing a crucial role in diplomacy.
- High Courts of Justice: They established High Courts of Justice, where sentences were carried out in the name of the King, who served as the supreme judge in all areas except the Church.
- New Taxes: They implemented new taxes to cover the costs of administrative needs, the army, and other expenses. The nobility and clergy were exempt from paying taxes, justified by their roles in the defense of citizens and the salvation of souls.
Examples of Emerging Monarchies
- France: Louis XII and Francis I
- England: Henry VII and Henry VIII
- Spain: The Catholic Monarchs
Italy was divided into principalities and Papal States.
Germany remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, which would eventually fall under the control of the House of Habsburg.
The Catholic Monarchs: A Case Study in Authoritarianism
The Catholic Monarchs of Spain provide an excellent example of an authoritarian monarchy:
- Territorial Unification: Their dynastic union merged the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. They conquered Granada from the Muslims and annexed territories like Navarre, Roselló, and Sardinia to the Crown of Aragon.
- Religious Unification: To unite the diverse population, they pursued religious unification. They established the Court of the Inquisition to investigate cases of crypto-Judaism and expelled unconverted Jews in 1492. After the conquest of Granada, they ordered the expulsion or forced conversion of Muslims in peninsular territories (Moriscos).
- Expansion Abroad: They conquered Melilla and the Canary Islands and sponsored Columbus’s voyage in search of new routes to the East across the Atlantic. Naples was also conquered by the Crown of Aragon.
- Administrative Centralization: They created Councils (for governing different subjects) with advisory roles, the Holy Brotherhood (with police functions on roads), and the Hearings and Chancillerías as high courts, such as the one in Granada. They also appointed Aldermen as royal representatives in municipalities.
- Subjugation of the Nobility: They established a royal army, encouraged marriages between royal relatives and the nobility, and controlled important military orders like Santiago, Calatrava, and Montesa.
- Strategic Marriages: They implemented a strategic marriage policy with ruling families in Europe. Their daughters Elizabeth and Mary married into the Portuguese royal family, Catherine married into the English royal family, and Joanna married Philip, heir of the House of Austria. Their son, Prince John, married into the House of Burgundy, and their descendant was Emperor Charles V.