Europe’s Socioeconomic Evolution: From Old Regime to Industrialization
Old Regime
The Old Regime was a form of social organization and economic policy prevalent in most European countries between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was characterized by:
- An economy based on agriculture.
- A society divided into estates.
- A political organization based on monarchy.
- Artistic expression: Baroque.
Manorial Agriculture Economy
The economy was primarily rural, with 80-90% of the population engaged in agriculture. Only a small portion of the land was freely tradable; the rest was tied to nobility, the Church, municipalities, or the Crown. All land held by a lord was termed “territorial lordship” and consisted of the demesne (the most productive land reserved for the lord’s direct operation) and plots called “meeks,” sized to sustain a family.
Absolute Monarchy
The political system of absolute monarchy, characteristic of the Old Regime, was based on divine right. The monarch controlled the state, holding all powers (legislative, executive, and judicial), appointing judges, administering justice, and directing foreign policy. The monarch’s power was limited only by divine law, natural law, and the fundamental laws of each kingdom. Parliaments, institutions born in the Middle Ages, brought together representatives of the three estates.
Parliamentary Monarchy
This form of government, common in many democracies, features a king as head of state under the control of the legislature (Parliament) and the executive (government). An elected parliament voted on laws, although voting rights were limited. King Charles II had to accept habeas corpus, guaranteeing every detainee the right to appear before a judge and have legal representation.
Triennial System
This basic agricultural technique involved a three-year crop rotation: winter wheat in the first year, spring wheat in the second, and a fallow year. This system ensured tax payments to nobles and helped prevent starvation.
Norfolk System
This revolutionary agricultural system involved regular crop rotation without depleting the soil, ensuring continuous productivity.
Industry
Industry encompasses the processes and activities that convert raw materials into finished products in bulk.
Liberalism vs. Old Regime
The Old Regime was characterized by slavery and social hierarchies, whereas liberalism emphasized individual freedom and equality, asserting that people were not governed by any particular person.
Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an individualistic intellectual movement that developed in Europe in the 18th century, inspiring the independence of the United States and the French Revolution. Key figures included:
- Isaac Newton: Introduced the scientific method based on observation.
- John Locke: Critiqued absolute power and advocated for the division of powers.
French Enlightenment thinkers championed reason (human intelligence) as the sole means to understand and explain the world. Educated individuals were often deists, believing in a God present in nature but rejecting organized religion. They compiled the first encyclopedia to gather all contemporary knowledge and laid the groundwork for liberalism.
Key Enlightenment Thinkers
- Montesquieu: An aristocrat who advocated for the division of powers, emphasizing the independence of the judiciary.
- Voltaire: A defender of tolerance and freedom, an enemy of the church and established order, and a critic of absolutism.
- Rousseau: Argued for a social contract between rulers and ruled and formulated the principle of national sovereignty.
Industrial Development
Industrial development saw the replacement of animate power sources with inanimate ones and the use of machines. Workers were concentrated in factories, and individualized production was replaced by the factory system. Mechanization began with inventions like the flying shuttle and new spinning and weaving machines, powered by waterwheels.
Cotton Industry
Cotton is a soft, washable, and inexpensive fabric. Cotton fabrics were initially imported from India. The textile industry’s beginnings date back to 1750, with the prohibition of imported printed cotton (calico). Simple inventions like the flying shuttle and lint machines increased spinning productivity.
Charcoal and Iron
Charcoal became a major fuel source, powering the steam engine. Coal production increased dramatically due to mining innovations. Iron beams in mines allowed for safer and deeper wells. Increased demand for iron for tools, ammunition, and machinery stimulated the search for cheaper fuel. Charcoal was substituted with coking coal. The Bessemer converter enabled the conversion of iron into steel.