Europe’s Transformation: Late Middle Ages to 15th Century
The Crisis of the 14th and 15th Centuries
During the 14th and part of the 15th century, Europe suffered a serious crisis. Among the causes of this crisis were years of poor harvests due to adverse weather and the cultivation of poor-quality land.
Consequences of the Crisis
- A reduction in population: The Black Death caused the population to fall by a third alone. This led to the abandonment of entire regions and a reduction in the workforce.
- Rural and urban rebellions: The economic situation of farmers and the petite bourgeoisie became desperate, leading to multiple conflicts:
- Peasants rebelled against feudal abuses.
- Poor urban groups rebelled against the leaders of the cities, the high nobility, and the upper bourgeoisie, who held most of the political and economic power. The rebels’ objective was greater participation in urban government and the reduction of high taxes, but the nobility and the monarchs repressed these rebellions.
- Religious persecution: Social discontent led people to accuse religious minorities of their problems. Persecution of Jews led to their expulsion from several European countries (France, England, Spain, Portugal…). This hate also extended to converts to Christianity. Religious tribunals, such as the Inquisition, persecuted heretics, witches, and suspected false converts.
The Church and Political Power
France’s influence over the Church caused the papal see to move from Rome to Avignon.
In 1378, the Western Schism occurred. The inability of the cardinals to reach an agreement resulted in the appointment of two popes: one in Avignon (supported by France, Scotland, Castile, and Aragon) and one in Rome (supported by the Italian states, England, Portugal, and the Holy Roman Empire).
This division damaged the Church and diminished its power but ended with the agreement on the appointment of a single pope in 1417.
Gothic Architecture: A New Style
The Gothic style predominated between the 12th and 15th centuries. It began in France and spread throughout Europe, varying from country to country.
Characteristics of Gothic Architecture
The characteristics of Gothic architecture were tall buildings and illuminated interiors. To achieve this, architects used new construction techniques. These included pointed arches and ribbed vaults to add height. To support the weight of the roof, they used buttresses. Arches called flying buttresses joined them to the building. At the top of the buttress, there was a pointed element called a pinnacle. Above the church tower or transept was a pyramidal tower called a spire. The walls contained large stained-glass windows, and the circular ones were called rose windows.
Due to economic and urban growth, a large number of Gothic buildings appeared. Among the civil buildings were palaces, town halls, and markets. The most important religious buildings were cathedrals.
Economic Development in the Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages was a period of economic development. Agricultural production increased due to technological advances. As a result, the European population almost doubled between the 12th and 14th centuries. Farmers plowed the land to grow crops and sold the surplus in markets. The most important activities were textile production and masonry. Artisans’ guilds controlled working conditions, prices, and production. They also regulated access to the three professional categories: apprentice, journeyman, and master.
Trade and Commerce
- Roads became safer from the 12th century onwards, mainly due to the end of foreign invasions.
- Bills of exchange appeared. These documents guaranteed a banker would pay a merchant on a date at a specific place, as traveling with money was unsafe.
- Major towns and cities had permanent shops, and there were weekly markets in the main squares.
- Artisans and traders created leagues. One of the most important ones was the Hanseatic League in northern Europe.
- Traders established maritime routes in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, as well as new land routes across Central Europe.
- Fairs were large markets that were held at main points on these routes at specific times of year.