Evolution of European Thought: Renaissance to Enlightenment
The modern era in Europe spans from the 15th to the 18th century, beginning with the Renaissance (14th and 15th centuries). This transitional period between the medieval and modern ages saw the emergence of nation-states, the rise of the bourgeoisie, and a renewed interest in classical authors. Key events like the fall of Constantinople, the discovery of America, the widespread use of gunpowder, and the invention of printing profoundly impacted European society.
In philosophy, the Renaissance revived the ideas of Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, as well as Democritus, Socrates, Stoicism, and Epicureanism. This period emphasized anthropocentrism over medieval theocentrism and embraced naturalism, valuing nature as a subject of study. This led to the birth of the “New Science,” challenging Aristotelian views and promoting a heliocentric and mechanistic worldview through the work of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton.
The modern era championed the autonomy of reason, rejecting the medieval notion of philosophia ancilla theologiae. Reason was seen as a guiding principle, governed by its own laws and experience. This paved the way for the Enlightenment in the 18th century.
Rationalism vs. Empiricism
Two major schools of thought emerged regarding human reason:
- Rationalism (Descartes, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz) emphasized innate ideas and the power of reason to deduce certain knowledge, using mathematics as a model.
- Empiricism (Locke, Berkeley, Hume) argued that knowledge comes from experience, likening the mind to a tabula rasa. They followed Ockham’s nominalism, advocating for the elimination of unnecessary notions not based on testable evidence.
Kant’s Synthesis
Immanuel Kant synthesized these approaches, proposing that knowledge results from the interaction between a priori elements of reason and experience. He argued that scientific laws require both reason and experience, limiting reason to phenomena and acknowledging the impossibility of purely objective knowledge.
Morals and Politics
The Enlightenment championed reason and freedom, influencing political landscapes across Europe. Kant’s motto, Sapere aude! (Dare to know!), encapsulated the era’s emphasis on individual thought and autonomy.