Evolution of Political Systems and Society in Argentina
Political Systems and Civil Society
Political System: A set of political institutions, governmental and non-governmental organizations, played by social actors, with a certain capacity for power and limited independence. Political Regime: Formed by political parties, electoral laws, and forms of government. Forms of government offer the best institutional policy organization. Civil society, including economic and social actors from the media to the church, private and civil institutions, interacts with the state, shaping each other.
Types of States
Absolutist State
Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, monarchs held absolute power, not necessarily synonymous with tyranny. Constitutional limits outlined the modern state administration in terms of rationality and consciousness.
Liberal State
Emerged in England between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, abandoning the absolutist state. Characterized by the defense of private property and free enterprise. Established through social, economic, and political organization, seeking individual rights through societal transformation. Key aspects include political law, constitutionalism, and separation of powers. Matteucci identifies the bourgeoisie as playing a key role.
Welfare State
Based from 1950, a golden age of development occurred between the advance of industrial capitalism and a large number of paid workers with high rates of unionization. Its policy was universal class hegemony, based on the legitimacy of decisions. Features include high GDP allocated to social spending, fiscal implementation, growth in the financial sector, and a mixed economy based on capital-labor-state triad.
Neoliberal State
Emerged from the 1970s following the oil crisis, resulting in fiscal deficits. It promotes international globalization, competition in the global marketplace, and increasing independence. The worker figure changes to the consumer. Economic policies focus on research, privatization, market opening, decentralization, labor flexibility, and competitiveness.
The State and Politics Today
An open struggle between political and non-political forces (due to power) positions the individual as neutralized, individualistic, and apolitical, with a feeling that nothing can change. Policy in a modern social state can change from the city.
Chapter 1: Generation of 1880
In 1916, H. Irigoyen took office, elected by universal suffrage, secret and compulsory by the Sáenz Peña Law. His victory was clear, reflecting a majority will and a sense of democracy. This led to significant economic growth, building a mutually beneficial partnership with Britain. The country grew dramatically, attracting immigrants who successfully integrated into an open society. Irigoyen modified the State’s repressive attitude, using its power to mediate between social sectors. The period between 1880 and 1916 was characterized by an agro-export model, a conservative regime, and mass immigration, marking the beginning of progress.
The expansion of capitalism in Argentina involved entering competition with great powers, requiring institutional organization. The motto of this generation was “peace and order,” with effective control over the territory. Since 1862, the national state gradually challenged existing power structures, securing the national army’s monopoly of force. The state also asserted power over indigenous territories, clearly defining territorial boundaries. By 1880, a new institutional framework consolidated a strong power center, with strong presidential power but limited by the lack of reelection. Buenos Aires took power while respecting provincial autonomy. State institutions, including the tax system, judiciary, and administration, began to play important roles in education and immigration.
The state facilitated Argentina’s integration into the world economy. British capital grew significantly, with investments in shops, banks, and public corporations. The Argentine government assured British companies good profits. The opening to British capital benefited local production, with landowners increasing production. The expansion of rail networks supported agricultural and livestock development. Argentina modified its immigration policy, encouraging immigration with subsidized tickets to populate rural areas. Foreign investments were managed with extensive safeguards, and the state took risks to ensure private success. Large tracts of land were transferred at minimal cost to powerful individuals, consolidating the landlord class. On the coast, livestock gave way to agriculture, with land being leased. In Buenos Aires, foreign exchange was used for property, sheep exploitation, and eventually, the export of livestock. The land was used for grain, forage, and grazing, associating agriculture with ranching. The land was controlled by an oligarchy that controlled a wide range of activities. Exports, especially meat, became increasingly important, with the export of refrigerated meat beginning in 1900. On the eve of the war, Argentina was a leading world exporter of grain and meat. State income grew due to import taxes, with landlords using proceeds to beautify the city.
Radical Governments (Chapter 2)
Differences between Irigoyen and Alvear: Both faced challenges in democratic institutions. Irigoyen was seen as a populist leader, while Alvear was identified with the old regime. The First World War modified the economic, social, political, and cultural landscape. Argentina remained neutral, continuing to provide for traditional clients and opposing Anglo-Saxon imperialism. A “liberal reform” intended to extend citizenship and respect for minorities.
Consequences of War
- Trade retraction
- Capital retraction
- Wage arrears
- Unemployment
- Grave situation in rural areas
- Social confrontation
- Decreased cereal exports
The war ended a period of easy economic growth, exposing the vulnerability of the Argentine economy, which relied on exports, capital income, labor income, and agricultural frontier expansion. The war affected both quantities and prices of exports, with excess supply worldwide. The U.S. presence grew, occupying space left by European countries. U.S. economic expansion in the 1920s was expressed through exports of automobiles, agricultural machinery, and industrial machinery. To ensure its market, major U.S. industries invested heavily. U.S. exports did not contribute to placing Argentine products in the U.S. market, creating an imbalance in the balance of payments. The relationship with GB was also problematic. Sales of canned meat benefited farmers, but the situation changed when European governments cut stock sales. The U.S. banned imports of Argentine beef, adding to protectionist tariffs. Despite this, there was a shift towards agriculture, which grew enormously. All this exposed the precariousness of state funding. The government needed resources for social policy and public employment. Alvear cut public spending, laying off numerous employees.
Chapter III
In 1930, Uriburu became president, seeking “national regeneration” and a return to a hierarchical society. He opposed liberal government. The political landscape included socialists, progressive democrats, liberals, and conservatives. The radical anti-personnel, led by Alvear, won the elections. The right supported a military-civil government backed by the army. Socialists and progressive democrats gained a slight advantage due to radical abstention. The central government tackled the crisis, with imports and state spending falling sharply. The flow of capital decreased, and international prices of agricultural products fell. Minister Pinedo advanced a more innovative path, increasing state intervention and gradually closing the economy, strengthening the relationship with GB. The government balanced its budget. In 1935, the Central Bank was established to regulate finances, and national grain and meat boards were created to set fair prices. The economy gradually closed, creating conditions for replacing imported goods with local production. Livestock declined, but agricultural production grew, with corn exports increasing.
British Presence
GB wanted to strengthen ties with its colonies and shorten the U.S. presence in Argentina. British companies faced fixed costs, reduced activities, and competition. A mission was sent to negotiate special tariffs in exchange for meat exports. This treatment aimed to revive declining businesses but did not succeed. GB thought it was more expensive to buy from Argentina. This caused problems in local sectors, with conflicts between slaughterhouses, farmers, and breeders. The government was seen as fraudulent, leading to social movements. Workers’ unions grew stronger, with more strikes. The CGT arose as a social group claiming workers’ rights. The relationship with governments was repressive. Gradually, improvements were made, including an 8-hour workday, fixed Saturdays, retirement, and paid vacation. The State recognized the importance of this social actor. President Justo Ortiz maintained good contacts with the rail industry and sought support from them. The State wanted to reduce partisan politics and representative institutions, disqualifying political parties and Congress. The State negotiated directly with various actors of society.
World War II
The first impact was felt in relationships with GB and the USA. Argentina became closer to European markets, increasing imports of canned meat and local industry. The state developed economic measures to foster this relationship, remaining neutral in the war. There was solidarity with the U.S. and its policies. The war demanded an active and efficient state, with the military becoming increasingly visible. The armed forces became an important political actor. In 1943, the army raided a second institutional order without a government program or a candidate.
Chapter IV
The military coup was a state of transition, aiming to silence political and social turmoil. The military did not want to stay in power but wanted to call elections. The military, controlled by the GOU (United Workers’ group), began to intervene in politics. Perón was the most influential member. Perón admired the Italian fascist regime and hated the Spanish Civil War. His main concern was the labor movement, linking with unions influenced by the European trade union movement. He began working on workers’ rights, gaining union support. He argued that the military was necessary to organize the state and ensure economic and social sovereignty. His speech focused on “social justice.” The people demanded elections, protesting the military. The Democratic Union, Socialist, UCR, Communist Progressive Democrats demonstrated against Perón, forcing the army to fire him. Perón, capturing the popular language of the masses, organized a counter-march. Union leaders supported Perón, along with the Army, Church, Workers, and Conservatives. Perón won over 300,000 votes, an overwhelming victory. In large cities, there was a confrontation between major groups, but in other parts of the country, the meaning was more traditional. The U.S. did not support him, linking him to Nazism. Peronism had won but was still to be built.
Economy
Perón kept anti-American rhetoric, leading to a systematic boycott against Argentina. GB did not accept U.S. pressure to restrict purchases from Argentina. After negotiations, Perón reached an agreement, leaving all British industries in exchange for canceling the debt. This was hailed as economic independence but benefited GB. An economic crisis began, with Argentina’s traditional role as a producer becoming less important. The war, market crisis, and U.S. boycott contributed to this crisis. Perón created the 1st Five-Year Plan, defending industry, meeting domestic market needs, and increasing wages. This led to greater consumption and industrial activity. The nationalization of the economy and state control were key to the new economic policy, raising living standards. Actions included paid vacations, maternity leave, rent freezes, house plans, school construction, and a pension system.
Social
Perón divided the unions, creating a single unit of worker strikes. Through Eva and her foundation, remarkable works were performed, including schools, homes, clinics, food distribution, and tourism promotion. The political participation of women was seen as legitimate, along with their entry into the workforce. The armed forces had much influence in the government, which was interventionist. His policy was authoritarian, replacing the supreme court, intervening in provinces, and advancing on the media. He amended the Constitution, allowing re-election. He asked senators and deputies for blank waivers. The discourse of the leader was privileged, aiming to “Peronize” any civil society space. Women’s suffrage was introduced as an instrument to ensure women a place in institutions, achieving mass politics.
Cultural Conflict
The social policy of the working class gave them a new social identity. The state provided access to education and cultural activities. The union held visible posts, and popular sectors had access to leisure and entertainment. Internal migration modified the appearance of popular sectors. The State provided access to popular culture, leading to a cultural conflict between “popular” culture and the “class” culture of the oligarchy. These two configurations were antagonistic and mutually exclusive. The second Perón era was marked by conflict, with markets contracting and reserves exhausted. The situation was serious, with the industry becoming more dependent. The second five-year plan aimed to reduce inflation, limiting domestic consumption, banning meat consumption, lifting rent freezes, and prioritizing imports of heavy industrial machinery. Attempts were made to reconcile with the U.S. Industrial stagnation was evident. The beginning of the crisis was accompanied by strikes. Perón opted for a crackdown, with an authoritarian government based on Peronizing public administration and education. Perón’s second term was bound by the new economic plan. The death of Eva Perón was a blow to him and the regime. Perón began to appear tired and distracted. The Church, initially linked to the government, faced conflict due to the prohibition of religious instruction. Opposition grew, and Perón offered his resignation. A military uprising broke out, and Perón took refuge in Paraguay.
Garabedian: Definition of State
Guillermo O’Donnell: State is domination in a territorially defined society, stressing obedience by institutions and individuals. Domination can be obtained by physical force or ideological control. Oscar Oszlak: Defines the state as related to a structured system of social domination, manifested through institutions. Highlights attributes of statehood: recognition of sovereignty, legitimacy, ability to exercise power, developing a management system, and creating a sense of belonging.
Elements of State
- Sovereignty: Exclusive control of territory and population.
- Territory: Physical space of domination.
- Population: All persons residing in the defined area.
- Administrative apparatus: Bureaucratic control and management.
- Government: Decision-making body.
Thoughts About the Weber State
Weber: Describes capitalism as a modern phenomenon, understanding policy as the confrontation between different social, political, and economic powers. Power should be legitimate for the realization of objectives and obedience. Marx: The State is a service for the bourgeoisie to exploit the working class. Bourgeois politics hides real operating conditions. Social change will only come from proletarian self-managed organization. Capitalism creates social classes. Bernstein: Capitalism in a new phase of development, with state neutrality and suffrage. Lenin: Stresses political repression and technical elements. Gramsci: Notion of extended state, with a relationship between civil society and the state forming a political hegemony. Fascist State: Opposed to liberal democracy, authoritarian capitalism, expansionary policy, and seeks the weight of tradition. Nazism: Based on concepts of racial superiority. Maurras: Advocates national order based on monarchical tradition and Catholic values.
Massive immigration (internal and external) reshaped the economic progress of society in Argentina. Internal migration led people to big cities due to factories and jobs. External migration was encouraged by ads to populate rural areas. Poor housing, health issues, and unstable jobs were common. Education was seen as a way to progress. Primary education helped overcome language barriers, while higher education opened doors to better jobs. Civil registration laws and civil marriage were introduced, inspired by European legislation. Primary education was secular, free, and compulsory. The First World War disrupted commerce and finance, leading to social tensions. The revolution of the Civil Union and strikes led to the formation of the Argentina Agrarian Federation. Anarchism, the illiterate working class, the elite, and trained workers formed different social groups. Socialists aimed to reach the working masses. The UCR grew to form a network of committees, seeking free elections. The secret ballot proposal aimed to avoid government interference in elections. The electoral reform provided for the representation of the majority. The UCR became a mass party, with HY as a national leader. The Conservatives tried to organize a party of national dimension, but many people did not win. The secret ballot and obligatory vote brought an interference that the people wanted to vote. The electoral reform provided for the representation of the majority. The Conservatives won, but in many provinces, radicals were imposed. The prospects of victory and the disappointment that the Conservatives won, prompting many people to radicalism, which in recent years became a mass party, organized a network of committees and leaders emerged HY, became a national leader to face dimension conservatives. The Conservatives tried to organize a party of national dimension as radical and they put Lisandro de la Torre, who was the candidate emblematic (Democratic Progressive Party), but many people do not win, then the tower to raise their own preferred alternative. Divided conservatives, radicals, which also faced its own divisions, imposed tight in an election in 1926, inaugurated a new social and institutional stage.
Worldwide, there was a search for institutional order, with social revolutions against dictatorships. Strikes multiplied in cities, driven by big unions. H tried to mediate against these claims, but layoffs and military repression were common. This marked the end of the oligarchic state and the birth of a buffer state of tension. The “tragic week” caused significant damage. The church helped the poor, creating schools and libraries. The population had been nationalized, with children taking the place of foreign parents. The public school’s action created a social plan for literacy. The woman started to work, and leisure time increased. The university was a major problem for this society, with many young people wanting to open its doors. The reformists were supported by HY. The growth of parties was a measure of the depth of the new democracy. The C. Union Radical was the only one who reached the size of modern national party and the masses. The Socialist Party also had a program but lacked the massive national dimension. Progressive Democrats had roots among farmers. The conservative right adopted populist nationalists and wanted a military coup. Alvear enacted important social laws. He limited the creation of new government jobs and accepted institutional control functions. He created YPF (Fiscal Oilfields). The radical project claimed the exclusive exploitation of oil by the Argentine government. The armed forces were interested in politics and became a political actor. Alvear limited the creation of new government jobs and accepted the parliament. The accession of the hopeful Uriburu a military coup regenerator, the forces were re-equipped. Were related to the traditional liberal right and the Patriotic League. Radicalism in 1928 was divided. Alvear’s policy marked a setback in relation to the progress made by the Yrigoyenist. The opposition, overwhelmed by the election results, was thinking to leave and by non-institutional, in addition to all this global crisis, falling exports, American Withdrawals, Drop in foreign trade due to the results Layoffs election. Many groups were calling for the downfall of the government. The failure of radical governments was not to respond quickly to the crisis. The discussions revolved around whether to seek an institutional solution or a military solution.