Evolution of Political Thought: From Natural Rights to Modern Governance
Evolution of Political Thought
Community and Law
Company policy dictates where political activity occurs. Collective living forms the foundation of law. Democracy, as a form of government, grants all members of the group equality before the law—a law they themselves created. This entails equal rights and obligations.
The Modern World and Social Contracts
Modern society originates from a covenant between individuals, establishing social order based on agreements among free beings. Members of the political community transition from subjects to citizens. This concept is enshrined in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Contemporary Socialism and Citizenship
Contemporary socialist thought contributes to the modern understanding of citizenship, emphasizing individual freedoms and equality before the law. This includes economic, social, and cultural rights, as outlined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Contractualism and its Thinkers
Contractualist thinkers posit that society is founded on a contract. Their theories prioritize the human beings who constitute political society. Contractualism underpins both citizenship and democracy, contrasting with theories like Aristotle’s organicism.
Locke’s Contract Theory
Locke believed humans are inherently free in the state of nature, enjoying rights to life, liberty, and property. However, when one violates another’s rights, the injured party is entitled to punishment. This can lead to disproportionate retribution. Locke proposed the separation of powers and the right of the people to remove rulers who fail in their duties or exceed their granted powers. This forms the basis of citizenship.
Secularism and Citizenship
Secularism is crucial for genuine citizenship. A civic-political strategy serving individual citizens, regardless of identity, ethnicity, class, or religion, is essential for freedom of conscience and democratic governance.
Civic Virtues and Citizenship
Civic virtues stem from a sense of belonging to the community and imply a duty towards others within the collective. This includes solidarity, tolerance, and prudence.
Political Power and Legitimacy
Members of a society share interests, beliefs, and values, enabling them to coexist. However, differing perspectives can lead to tensions and conflict.
Legitimacy refers to the source of political power and its exercise through law. Theocracy posits that power comes from God, who governs through chosen individuals.
The People as a Source of Power
In democracy, the people are the source of political power, legitimizing authority. Rulers derive their power from the people who elect them. The people are sovereign.
The State of Nature
The state of nature is a pre-societal condition. Kant argues that the state of nature is a state of war, where individuals lack legal protection.
Legitimate Exercise of Power
The state has the power to enforce laws coercively. A government is legitimate when its actions and laws are just. Just laws are approved by the legislature, in accordance with the constitution and human rights declarations.
Stateless Societies and the State
Humans are social by nature. As societies grew and specialized, different roles and power dynamics emerged, leading to internal and external conflicts. This influenced the development of centralized power structures, eventually forming states.
The Modern State
The modern state, in the form of nation-states, emerged during the 15th and 16th centuries. Economic progress, urban development, and the rise of the bourgeoisie weakened the nobility and strengthened the power of kings.
Characteristics of the Modern State
- Sovereign power over a territory and population.
- Coercive power and monopoly of violence, enforced by police and army.
- Ability to raise resources for operation.
- Bureaucracy to manage resources and address societal needs.
The Absolute State
The modern state emerged with authoritarian monarchies, maintained by strong royal armies and a monopoly on military power. This was reinforced by the prevailing mentality and limited economic development.
The Liberal State
Change began in England with the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution of 1688, leading to the establishment of a liberal state. The Bill of Rights of 1689 laid the foundation for this new system. The American Revolution further propelled the development of liberal states.
The Socialist State
The rise of an urban proletariat led to protest movements for better working conditions. Socialist thought emerged, advocating for material equality and economic and social rights for all citizens. The state’s role shifted from guaranteeing individual liberty to creating conditions for equal enjoyment of these rights.
The Welfare State
Liberal and democratic states increasingly provided social services, evolving into welfare states. These states prioritize social, economic, and cultural rights, intervening in the economic and social order to ensure equality of opportunity and access to basic needs.
John Locke
Locke, involved in British politics, argued that in the state of nature, individual rights are limited by the equal rights of others. He emphasized the importance of life, liberty, and property.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau, in The Social Contract, contrasted modern humans with those in the state of nature. He argued that humans formed societies through a social contract, recognizing the benefits of cooperation. The solution to societal challenges lies in the general will.
Rationalism
Rationalism defines humans as rational beings, emphasizing reason as the primary tool for problem-solving.
Morality comprises rules of conduct governing human actions. Ethics reflects on these moral standards, questioning their necessity and origin.