Evolution of Scientific Thought & Concepts of Truth
Paradigm Shifts in Scientific Thought
Copernicus
Transitioned from a geocentric to a heliocentric model of the universe, proposing that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Maintained the principle of circular and uniform motion of celestial bodies.
Kepler
Challenged the Aristotelian view of unchanging celestial spheres. Abandoned the principle of circularity, paving the way for a more dynamic understanding of planetary motion.
Einstein’s Relativistic Quantum Physics
- Established the speed of light as a universal constant.
- Rejected the concept of absolute space and reference.
Informal Fallacies
- Ad hominem: Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.
- Ad ignorantiam: Claiming something is true because it cannot be proven false.
- Ad verecundiam: Appealing to authority to establish truth.
- Ad baculum: Using threats or force to persuade.
- Ad populum: Appealing to emotions or popular opinion.
- Ex populo: Arguing that something is true because many people believe it.
Historical Concepts of Truth
Different cultures have viewed truth variously, from the Greeks’ concept of unveiling hidden reality to the Hebrew emphasis on trust and reliability. Modern perspectives include:
- Dogmatism: Belief in absolute, attainable truth.
- Skepticism: Denial of the possibility of certain knowledge.
- Subjectivism/Relativism: Truth as relative and context-dependent.
- Criticism: Confidence in human knowledge but with critical evaluation.
Criteria of Truth Across History
- Plato: Truth through understanding universal essences.
- Aristotle: Correspondence between thought and reality.
- Aquinas: Harmony between reason and faith.
- Descartes: Evidence as the basis of truth (“I think, therefore I am”).
- Hume: Correspondence between perceptions and ideas.
Theories of Truth
- Correspondence Theory: Truth as agreement between thought and reality.
- Coherence Theory: Truth as consistency within a belief system.
- Pragmatic Theory: Truth as what works in practice.
- Semantic Theory: Analysis of truth conditions in language.
- Perspectival Theory: Truth as consensus within a community.
Metaphysics and the Mind-Body Problem
- Monism: Mind and body as aspects of a single substance.
- Dualism: Mind and body as distinct entities.
The Objectivity of Reality
- Realism: We can know reality as it is.
- Psychologism: Our knowledge of reality is shaped by our minds.
- Idealism: Reality is fundamentally mental.
Theological Positions
- Theism: Belief in a knowable God.
- Fideism: Knowledge of God through faith.
- Deism: Belief in a creator God who does not intervene.
- Polytheism: Belief in multiple gods.
- Pantheism: God as identical with the universe.
- Atheism: Denial of God’s existence.
- Agnosticism: Impossibility of knowing whether God exists.
Plato’s Theory of Forms
Plato posited two worlds: a world of perfect, unchanging Forms and a physical world of imperfect copies.
Evolutionary Theory
Lamarck
Proposed that acquired characteristics are inherited.
Darwin
Emphasized natural selection as the driving force of evolution.
Synthetic Theory of Evolution
Combines Darwinian natural selection with Mendelian genetics.
Human Evolution and Higher Cognition
Key developments include bipedalism, tool use, extended childhood, brain development, language, and adaptability.
Moral Philosophy
Explores ethical systems and principles of moral action.
Major Moral Systems
- Material Ethics: Focus on consequences and happiness.
- Formal Ethics: Emphasis on duty and principles.
Culture and Cultural Relativism
Examines different perspectives on cultural diversity, from ethnocentrism to interculturalism.
The State and Political Thought
Traces the evolution of political systems and theories of governance.