Evolution of Sociological Theory: From Classics to Modernization
A Theory Defined
A theory is a logical system comprising observations, axioms, postulates, predictions, and inference rules. It economically explains a specific dataset and predicts observable events under certain conditions. Theories can be extended from their predictions and corrected by reasoning, explaining different facts from the initial theory.
Classical Evolution in Sociology
Advances in natural sciences led to proposals on the evolution (birth, growth, death) of living organisms. Sociology, adhering to the positivist paradigm, adapted the study method and drew analogies between organisms and society to understand social dynamics.
Auguste Comte: Early Sociology
Influenced by positivism, Comte adopted the scientific method to study social phenomena. Interested in societal order and progress, he studied the evolution of thought. His theoretical commitment was based on a linear conception of history, where evolution is independent of humans, governed by a divine law of progress.
Herbert Spencer: Darwinian Influence
Guided by Darwinian principles, Spencer analogized organisms and society. Evolution, for him, meant structural and functional differentiation—from simple to complex, amorphous to articulated, homogenous to specialized, fluid to stable. This produced distinct stages in human species, from simple to complex societies where the social division of labor became relevant.
Emile Durkheim: Social Facts
Durkheim focused on the influence of large social structures on individual thoughts and actions. He believed society comprised “social facts,” the object of sociological study. He sought societal evolution in the social division of labor, analyzing two ideal societal types: primitive (mechanical solidarity, similar functions) and modern (organic solidarity, complementarity, interdependence). Population growth, for Durkheim, intensified social relations and complexity.
Marxist Theory: Dialectical Materialism
Marxist theory shares evolutionary assumptions about human history, viewing progress as successive stages toward societal improvement, driven by endogenous forces. Marx recognized growing societal complexity and differentiation from the social division of labor. However, his dialectical conception of reality breaks from the causal view. He saw societal progress through conflicts, with history being cyclical but ending with the proletariat’s victory and a classless society. Modes of production, for Marx, determined social, political, and spiritual life, creating social relations reflected in dominant ideologies expressed through the state.
Max Weber: Rationalization and Power
Weber’s theory breaks from deterministic conceptions. He saw modernization as a growing rationalization process, evident in ownership changes, work mechanization, workforce nature, markets, and laws. He also examined power structures and societal dynamics, defining domination as the probability of obedience within a group. Weber’s influence on contemporary development theories is significant for introducing cultural elements explaining economic, political, and social development.
Modernization Theory
Modernization theorists believe progress is linked to adopting modern economic rationality—maximizing productivity, income generation, and investment for wealth accumulation by individuals and societies.