Evolution of Spain: From Iberians to Modern State
Early History of Spain
We know the first word of the Iberians, although we never managed to translate it. This indicates a complex society.
Ancient Greece had “city-states” called poleis, sharing language but with diverse cultures. The inhabitants of Phocaea (Phocaeans) reached Empuries in the third century BC, establishing trade with the Iberians.
Later, Rome formed Latium and began conquering the Iberian Peninsula. They conquered almost the entire territory except the Pyrenees, with Tarraco (Imperial City) and other cities as major centers. The Romans provided a state structure, created the senate, and imposed a hierarchical system.
However, after a few centuries, the Roman Empire declined due to:
- Rapid conquest, reaching a point where further expansion was unsustainable
- External invasions of other colonies
- Christianity, a significant counterforce. Initially persecuted, it was later granted freedom of religion, and Theodosius made it the official religion
Religion gained importance, with each city having a Roman bishop sharing power with the governor.
As the Roman Empire weakened, the Visigoths invaded Spain, expelling the Romans but maintaining the political structure and language. Barcelona and Toledo became capitals.
Birth of Catalonia
The Saracens invaded the peninsula rapidly, threatening France but were defeated at Poitiers, with the border remaining in the Pyrenees. Many Hispano-Visigoths sought refuge in the Pyrenees mountains.
Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the Pope, aiming to conquer territories and form a vast empire. He divided territories into counties.
The Saracens and Franks established a border territory, the Spanish March, to avoid conflicts. The Saracens, lacking financial resources, divided into Taifas. Charlemagne began occupying territory, creating Catalan counties. Upon the death of counts, Charlemagne granted Wilfred, Count of Barcelona, increasing power. Wilfred dominated most counties by the 11th century.
The Saracens conducted small raids into French-dominated cities.
During one such raid, Count Borrell II of Barcelona requested aid from the Frankish Empire (vassalage). The Franks, facing a crisis, refused, leading Borrell II to break the pact and declare Catalonia independent, although France did not recognize it. Consequently:
- A distinct language emerged, Catalan
- The flag was institutionalized
Aragon, facing two emerging powers, chose to unite with Catalonia due to its economic and political stability. They formed the Crown of Aragon through the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronila, remaining separate kingdoms.
Expansion of Catalonia
Catalonia attempted to expand into Provence, but the King of France prevented it using a religious pretext. The Catalans were defeated at Muret (1213), halting northern expansion. They turned southward, with James I conquering Majorca (1229) and Valencia (1232-1245). These became independent kingdoms within the Crown.
Catalonia expanded into the Mediterranean, conquering parts of Greece and Alghero. James I signed the Treaty of Corbeil with the French king, recognizing Catalan independence in exchange for renouncing claims to Provence. Catalonia annexed territories through pacts, creating a confederal system. It established the Consell de Cent and each kingdom’s Parliament, including nobility, clergy, and artisans. Differences grew between Catalonia, with its liberal tendencies and separation of powers, and Spain, with its absolutist monarchy and dependent sheep sector (the Mesta). Catalonia established the Consulate of the Sea to regulate Mediterranean trade.
Barcelona suffered a plague, halving the population. The capital moved to Valencia. A tax managed by the Generalitat was created to stabilize the situation, gaining importance. After Martin the Humane died without an heir, Ferdinand was chosen in the Compromise of Caspe. Ferdinand found Catalonia in decline due to the plague and a survival crisis. His son, John, provoked a civil war by rejecting the Courts’ guidelines, causing an institutional crisis.
Unification with Spain
Ferdinand II married Isabella of Castile, uniting their territories. It was an unequal union, as Castile was not in crisis like the Crown of Aragon. Castile expanded into the Atlantic after Columbus discovered America (1492).
Their daughter, Joanna the Mad, married Maximilian of Austria, expanding the Spanish Empire. The figure of the “valido” (royal favorite) emerged to manage state affairs. The king neglected the Catalan kingdoms, causing discontent. When the army was raised to fight in Holland against Luther’s Reformation, the Catalan Courts refused to contribute soldiers. Spanish troops passing through Catalonia caused robberies and rapes. In 1640, the Reapers’ War erupted, with rebels burning a church and killing the viceroy. Count-Duke Olivares responded with a 12-year siege. Catalonia sought French protection, becoming part of France temporarily until an agreement was reached respecting Catalan institutions. In a subsequent war, Catalonia lost Perpignan to France.
Birth of Modern Spain
Upon Charles II’s death, the War of the Spanish Succession began between Charles of Austria and Philip of Anjou. Castile supported Philip, while the Crown of Aragon supported Charles.
Philip’s forces conquered Valencia (1707), Aragon, and Barcelona after a three-month siege. The Treaty of Utrecht was signed:
- Recognizing Philip as King of Spain
- France ceded territories in America
Philip’s forces completed the conquest of Catalonia, executing General Moragues and destroying Barcelona’s economic heart.
The 1716 Nueva Planta decrees abolished Catalan laws, imposing Castilian structures. However, Catalonia experienced some improvement in the late 18th century due to:
- Free trade with America
- Real Estate Tax (flat tax)
- Emergence of proto-factories