Exploration and Conquest in the Americas: Impact and Consequences
Reasons for the Sea Voyages:
International trade increased in the 15th century, especially in products such as spices, silk and luxury goods from the east. However, in 1453, the Ottoman army occupied the city of Constantinople and blocked trade routes between Europe and Asia via the Near East. For this reason, European kingdoms such as Castile and Portugal began to explore the Atlantic Ocean. They wanted to find an alternative trade route to India and Southeast Asia. These sea voyages led to technical advances in navigation. The development of the caravel and the invention of the compass, the astrolabe and portolan charts made navigation easier.
The Conquest of Mexico:
Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire (1518-1524). The Aztecs offered resistance from their capital, Tenochtitlan, but Cortés took Emperor Montezuma hostage. Cortés finally defeated the Aztecs at the Battle of Otumba (1521). This paved the way for new expeditions. In the south, explorers arrived at the Yucatán Peninsula. In the north, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca explored Florida, Texas and California.
The Conquest of Perú:
Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro conquered the Inca Empire (now Peru, Ecuador and parts of Bolivia). The conquest was violent, especially in the Battle of Cajamarca (1532). Between 1540 and 1558, explorers made it to the south of the continent. They discovered the gold mines of Potosí, conquered Chile and founded Buenos Aires. In 1513, Balboa sighted the Pacific Ocean from Panama. Later, a route to Southeast Asia was opened by Miguel López de Legazpi and Andrés Urdaneta: They founded Manila in 1571 and named the islands the Philippines, in honour of Philip II.
How Were Exploited the Riches of the Americas? (Explain Encomienda, Mita and Laws of the Indies):
After the conquest, colonisation began. The interests of the Crown were different from the interests of the colonists: The conquistadors and noblemen wanted to acquire land and riches quickly. The Crown wanted to evangelise the indigenous population and impose a 20% tax (the royal fifth) on the wealth made from gold and silver mines. To protect the interests of both parties, the encomienda (a plantation for agriculture and livestock) and the mita (forced labour) were created. The exploitation of the local people in mines and on farms was abusive. As a result, the Crown issued the Laws of the Indies (Leyes de Indias) in 1542, which prohibited enslaving the natives and considered them subjects of Castile. If these laws were not followed, the encomendero (plantation owner) could lose his land. Their long, hard workdays led to disease and even death.
Colonial Society:
Contact between settlers and the indigenous population created an unequal society. People born in Europe made up the colonial elite. They managed their properties or worked for the Crown. Their descendants, the criollos, numbered 500,000 by the late 16th century. The indigenous people made up the majority of the population. People of combined European and indigenous descent became known as mestizos. The shortage of labour meant that slaves from sub-Saharan Africa were introduced. Colonisation had serious consequences for indigenous peoples. Forced labour and disease led to a great decline in population. The use of Spanish became widespread and indigenous people were forced to convert to Catholicism and renounce their own beliefs and customs. They retained their language and culture in some isolated areas.
Consequences for the Natives:
Mostly negative: Civilizations destroyed, Severe demographic decline, diseases, forced labour, religious conversion, forced to abandon their culture and traditional economy.
Consequences for Spain:
Mostly positive: Crown of Castile was rewarded substantially for exploration and colonization. Conquest stimulated Spanish trade and economy, and financed Spanish hegemony in the 16th century. Negative: 2,000-3,000 Spanish emigrants/year. Spain extracted so many precious metals that it caused inflation of prices (products became more expensive) in the home country, money lost value because there was so much supply of gold and silver.
Council of Indies:
The crown held absolute power over the Indies and the Council of the Indies was the administrative and advisory body for those overseas realms.
Laws of the Indies:
Prohibited enslaving the natives and considered them subjects of Castile.
Vicerroyalty:
The position of, or territory governed by, a viceroy.
Viceroy:
A person who governs a territory in the name of a monarch.
Criollo:
A descendant of Europeans, born in the Americas.
Mestizo:
A person of mixed origin with one Spanish parent and one indigenous parent.
Dynastic Union:
Two territories that are governed by the same dynasty but keep their own borders, feudal systems, laws, institutions and money.
Tercio:
A Spanish military formation made up of 3,000 infantry soldiers armed with pikes, swords and harquebuses.