Exploration of Philosophy and Thought
Mythical Thought
Mythical thought is simply unfounded, making assertions without proof. What is said may or may not be true, but it cannot be demonstrated. Uncritical thought does not provide reasons, explain, or analyze its own methodology. It’s unclear if it follows a path adhering to its assertions.
Anthropomorphic thought explains the world by projecting human motivations and experiences onto it.
Committed thought is emotionally invested in the world, attributing events to the whims of “human-like” deities with greater power.
Scientific Knowledge
Scientific knowledge is regional and sectorial, focusing on specific areas of reality. It limits the universe of study, leading to more exhaustive examination of specific problems.
Critical scientific knowledge uses analysis and reduction to determine elements within bounded sectors, reconstructing or synthesizing them to understand the broader reality.
The critical level of science is limited by its hypotheses. Some lack deductive reasoning and precise deductions. They confirm conclusions through observation.
Scientific knowledge is intersubjective and transmissible. Any subject with the necessary means can perform experiments to confirm existing theories and acquire knowledge.
Scientific knowledge can be used for human benefit, allowing intervention in nature for our advantage.
Philosophical Reflection
Philosophical reflection is a love of knowledge, a Platonic eros for understanding. It is universal, not limited to any particular object or problem.
Radical reflection delves into the roots of things, placing problems in perspective. It critically confronts hypotheses and assumptions accepted without exploration.
It is totalizing, going beyond specialized science, supposing a holistic effort prior to individual sciences.
Hypothetical-Deductive Method
This method involves:
- Determining the problem.
- Formulating a hypothesis explaining the phenomenon.
- Designing experiments to test the hypothesis.
- Determining if the hypothesis is correct. If so, it becomes a scientific law; otherwise, it is rejected and a new one proposed.
Philosophy
Ancient Philosophy (6th Century BC – 4th Century AD)
Sought a single principle to explain everything. Main concern: nature. Key thinkers: Thales of Miletus, Socrates, Epicurus, Seneca, Aristotle, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras.
Medieval Philosophy (4th – 14th Centuries)
Became religious, with faith addressing central philosophical questions. Arabic philosophy and science emerged. Thinkers like Averroes preserved Greek culture, enriching it with scientific observations and philosophical reflections. Key thinkers: St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Maimonides.
Modern Philosophy (17th – 18th Centuries)
Two main currents:
- Rationalism: Knowledge comes from reason, modeled on geometry. Representatives: Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza.
- Empiricism: Knowledge arises from sensory experience. Representatives: Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.
Key figure: Immanuel Kant.
Contemporary Philosophy (19th Century – Present)
19th Century:
- Idealism: Mind and spirit are fundamental. Philosophers: Fichte, Schelling, Hegel.
- Positivism: Experience and sensory information are fundamental. Representative: Auguste Comte.
20th Century: Logical positivism emerged, emphasizing that statements about empirical realities lacked meaning. Representatives: Bertrand Russell and Edmund Husserl. Spanish philosophers: Unamuno, José Ortega y Gasset.
Aristotle’s Basic Principles
Principle of Identity: A thing is identical to itself (a = a). These statements are tautologies, adding nothing to the subject.
Principle of Non-Contradiction: A proposition cannot be both true and false.
Principle of Excluded Middle: A statement is either true or false; there is no third possibility.
Truth as Correspondence: A proposition is true if it corresponds to reality.
Gestalt Psychology
Concluded that the human mind orders, reconstructs, and shapes sensory information to give it meaning. They distinguished between sensation (received sensory information) and perception (the mind’s interpretation and shaping of that information).
Fallacies
Incorrect arguments.
Formal Fallacies
Invalid reasoning due to its form, where true premises can lead to false conclusions.
Material Fallacies
Arguments ignoring the debate, discrediting the person.
Ad Baculum: Using force or threats to persuade.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: Assuming that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second.
Wishful Thinking: Presenting an overly optimistic view, ignoring negative elements.
Non Sequitur: Reaching a conclusion not supported by the premises.
Contemporary Revision of the Evil Genius
If a brain in a bucket receives electrical impulses simulating sensory information, it cannot distinguish reality from illusion. This shows that the brain doesn’t grasp reality directly but creates a representation.
Berkeley’s Representational Theory of Perception
Since perceptions cannot prove reality’s existence, we only perceive, not grasp, reality. Perceptions exist only in the mind. Berkeley added that God’s mind perceives everything constantly.
Eddington’s Two Tables
Eddington contrasted the common table (colorless, in space) with the scientific table (atoms and void, constantly vibrating). He concluded that the scientific table is the real one.
Descartes’ Dualism
Descartes posited a material, mechanical universe. However, human freedom and thought cannot be explained by this. Therefore, a spiritual substance (res cogitans) distinct from the material (res extensa) must exist.
Arguments for God’s Existence
- Ontological Argument: The idea of a perfect God implies his existence, as a non-existent God would be imperfect.
- Teleological Argument: The complexity and purposefulness of living organisms suggest an intelligent designer.
- Cosmological Argument: Contingent things require a necessary being (God).
The Physical Revolution
Driven by Copernicus, Galileo, Darwin, and Newton, it replaced traditional explanations. Physics investigated universal laws, leading to the acceptance of heliocentrism.
The Biological Revolution
Lamarck, Darwin, and Mendel proposed evolution, replacing traditional explanations with ones based on observed facts. Biology significantly changed societal mentality.
Lamarck’s Theory
Organisms arise from inert matter and transform to adapt. Two principles:
- Law of Use or Disuse: Organs develop or atrophy based on usage.
- Law of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Modifications are passed to offspring.
Mutation Theory
De Vries argued that evolution occurs in jumps, not gradually, due to spontaneous mutations.
Synthetic Theory of Evolution
A reformulation of evolutionary theory, incorporating genetics. Genetic variability arises from random mutations and recombination, upon which natural selection acts.
Relativity Theory and Space-Time
Space and time are relative to the observer, depending on their speed. They are interdependent and continuously changing.
Quantum Physics
Two alternative theories:
- Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics (batch processes).
- Schrödinger’s wave mechanics (continuous processes).
Uncertainty Principle
Position and velocity cannot be simultaneously determined due to observer-observed interaction.
Philosophical Implications
- No subject-object separation.
- Indeterminism and causality breakdown.
- Departure from common sense.