Exploring Ethical Theories and Ideal Life Philosophies
Values, Norms, Principles, and Morality
Values: These are properties that are objects. For example, a chair has properties which allow us to appreciate it.
Norms: These are instructions on how to act in certain situations to achieve certain ends or values. For example, humans have invented rules or standards for human behavior.
Principles: These are fundamental standards from which other rules or norms are generated. One example is how rules are established in a school (no gum chewing, etc.).
Moral Code: This is the set of a person’s values, principles, and moral norms, along with their set of moral ideas.
Morality: This encompasses the set of moral decisions and actions carried out by an individual.
Ethics: This is the philosophical investigation of ethics and morality.
Values Differences Between Rules and Principles
- Intimacy resulting from the accession to values and moral norms.
- The feeling of obligation or duty accompanying moral norms.
- Moral standards compliance is not reinforced by external sanctions.
- Moral action considers the welfare of both the agent and others.
Moral Judgments
A proposition about some aspect of morality or ethics, concerning the agent or others. According to Hume, moral judgments are emotive and incapable of motivating actions.
Ideal Life
How we live, think rationally or morally, and the paths we choose to live better are central to philosophical discussions of the ideal life.
Socratic Ideal
Live honestly and find the truth about how to live through reason. Letting reason and truth guide us, dialogue was seen as the best way to arrive at truth.
Aristotelian Ideal
Perfect happiness is found in combining family, friends, good health, and virtues such as courage. The path to happiness and virtue involves moderation, avoiding extremes, and learning through experience.
Epicurean Ideal
The ideal life is centered on pleasure. Living without concern, peacefully, and without pain. Achieving spiritual calm (ataraxia) leads to happiness. Guidance by reason is key.
Stoic Ideal
Virtue is the only good in life, providing peace of mind, happiness, and good spirits. Avoiding emotions (apatheia) and remaining unaffected by external factors allows the mind to master itself.
Skeptical Ideal
Avoid making judgments about how things are, achieving mental tranquility (ataraxia). Following the customs and laws of where we live is recommended.
Ethical Theories
A systematic set of rational ideas about morality. Virtue theory asks “What kind of person should I be?” while other theories ask “What should I do?” Consequentialist theories emphasize the results of actions, while deontological theories focus on duties, rules, and principles.
Ethical Egoism
The moral correctness of an action is based solely on the benefit it provides to the agent.
Pros: Clearly explains why an action is morally correct.
Cons: Cannot justify principles of human dignity and cannot resolve conflicts of interest.
Utilitarianism
The moral correctness of an action is based on its usefulness and the overall good it produces. It prioritizes universal well-being and is consequentialist.
Pros: Offers a clear criterion for moral decisions.
Cons: Calculating overall happiness is complex, and the distribution of happiness can be impersonal.
Kantian Ethics
Good will is the only absolute good.
Hobbes’ Absolute Power
State of Nature
Humans are individualistic and selfish, seeking pleasure and power. They are insatiable and amoral, willing to do anything to achieve their desires.
Social Contract
Individuals surrender their natural rights, power, and freedom to a sovereign in exchange for security and order. This contract is based on fear.
Welfare State
The sovereign is above the law and determines what is just or unjust. The sovereign cannot be judged.
Locke’s Liberal Theory
State of Nature
Humans are equal, free, and independent, possessing natural rights to liberty and property.
Social Contract
Individuals surrender some rights to the community to ensure coexistence and the common good. The state possesses the monopoly on legitimate force.
Welfare State
Power is not absolute and is divided among legislative, federative, and executive branches. Citizens have the right to revoke power if the law is not respected.
Rousseau’s Social Contract
State of Nature
Humans are naturally kind, compassionate, and live free and independently. There is no private property or division of labor.
Social Contract
Individuals surrender all rights to the community, forming a political body where sovereignty resides. The law reflects the general will and applies equally to all.
Social Status
Sovereignty belongs to the people and cannot be transferred. The people are the sovereign and legislator, and the government implements the laws.