Exploring Metaphysics: Origins, Concepts, and Contemporary Challenges

Posted on Nov 25, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

The Origin of Metaphysics

Its origin appears at the beginning of philosophy. The first Greek philosophers sought an explanation for the origin and formation of the world. The Egyptian civilization was very concerned about the afterlife and the cult of the gods. The Chaldeans and Assyrians deified natural forces and stars. At the heart of Europe, the dead were accompanied by weapons and domestic objects. The major themes that marked metaphysics are: the origin of the world, the immortality of the soul, and the question of divinity.

Definition and Evolution of Metaphysics

The term ‘metaphysical’ was established around 70 BC by the Greek philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes when he compiled and edited the 14 books of Aristotle, which were placed after the Physica. In these books, Aristotle referred to the relationship between science and its principles and the possibility of a science studying first principles. Aristotle considered first philosophy (metaphysics) as the foundation for all other sciences.

  1. In general, metaphysics deals with being as being (ontology), which is the part of metaphysics that deals with being in general and its properties.
  2. In a specific sense, metaphysics addresses beings that lack material form and are timeless (theology), which is the part of metaphysics that studies the possible existence of a deity.

In Kant’s view, the soul, world, and God are realities that are ideals known through moral faith.

Topics of Metaphysics

Being

It is a complex term, referring to both common and different things. What does it mean to be?

  1. Predicative use: Adding an attribute to the subject, e.g., Socrates is a man.
  2. Existential use: Affirming an object’s identity, e.g., this is a rose.

It is important to differentiate the essential features of an object from its apparent aspects, leading to the notions of substance and accidents.

Substance and Accidents

Substance is what makes something what it is and sets it apart from others. Accidents are the characteristics of objects that are not central to their configuration. For Aristotle, substance is the essence of things, necessary and unchanging. Descartes defines it as something that exists and does not need another thing to exist. For Locke, substance represents the internal constitution of the object and the qualities it possesses.

The Problem of the Soul

The soul is considered an immortal reality of supernatural nature, the principle of rational knowledge and moral government. The body is a mortal reality of nature, guided by animal passions. It is what makes something what it is and distinguishes it from others.

The Question of God

  • Religious consciousness: Its origin can be traced back to the first burials.
  • Proofs of the existence of God: These are classified into:
    1. Ontological arguments: Anselm of Canterbury first formulated the “ontological argument.” According to this argument, God is “that which no greater can be conceived.” God exists, not only mentally but in reality. Kant criticized this argument, stating that it illegitimately derives reality from an idea.
    2. Causal arguments: Thomas Aquinas’s “Five Ways” start from facts of experience, such as movement and causality, to reach the fact of God as the prime mover. Two important elements are the principle of causality and the inability to accept an infinite chain of causes. Kant criticized Aquinas’s “Five Ways” because God cannot be a sensible experience.
    3. Ethical-moral or experiential arguments: These rely on human freedom, which requires the existence of a “being” that fulfills humanity’s ethical aspirations. These aspirations cannot be achieved in this world. According to Kant, the existence of a moral conscience requires the existence of God.
  • Objections against the existence of God: Feuerbach argues that God is the image and likeness of man. Freud condemns the paternalistic image of God. Marx links the religious phenomenon to the need for powerful groups to justify their rule over the masses.

The Discredit of Metaphysics

There are three types of criticism of metaphysics:

  1. Epistemological-linguistic critique: Ockham argued that the concepts of classical metaphysics were just “mental entities” and not real.
  2. Ethical and moral critique: Nietzsche complains that traditional metaphysics mistakenly believes that moral values come from God rather than our earthly world.
  3. Historical-political critique: Represented mainly by Marxism, this position denies metaphysics because Marxism provides a more dynamic way of thinking and explaining reality (dialectical materialism). Metaphysics is seen as defending class interests (historical materialism). Currently, metaphysics is rejected, as seen in Auguste Comte’s positivism. From a scientific viewpoint, metaphysics is treated with condescension.

The New Metaphysical Attitude: The Meaning of Life

In the search for meaning in life, thinkers offer different alternatives:

  1. Life is meaningless: Albert Camus said that life is absurd and meaningless. He uses the myth of Sisyphus to express the absurdity of existence.
  2. Life has meaning:
    1. Transcendent sense (Christianity): God is the creator of all happiness, and individuals attain it through oneness with God.
    2. Immanent sense (Marxist Humanism): Starting from the fact that human beings are the fruit of evolution, it denounces the oppression of the working class by capitalists. Nietzsche criticizes herd morality, remorse, and guilt, proposing the “superman” as the new type of humanity.
  3. We give meaning to life: Taking on the role and giving meaning to their lives through participation and personal power. Frankl refers to the existential vacuum and sees life as a question by and for man, speaking of the self-transcendence of existence as an essential characteristic of humanity.

Technological Development and Its Consequences

The “Technical” and Its Relation to Science and Society

The term “technical” refers to a set of rules suitable for efficiently driving any activity. We can distinguish between magical techniques (based on random beliefs and dogmatic religious rites) and rational techniques (symbolic behavior among humans). Technology is the set of theories and techniques that make it possible to use scientific knowledge in practical ways. All technology is technical, but not all art is technology. Scientific discoveries permeate our society, and people demand that their views be considered in science policy.

Pre-modern Period

In ancient times, science and art were separated, and both were subject to praxis. The ideal of science in classical antiquity was contemplative knowledge, with importance given to geometry. Scientists were observers, and practical aspects were directed toward personal transformation. In the Middle Ages, the division between science and technology remained unchanged, with the Church controlling scientific and technical development.

Modern Period

During the Renaissance, science and technology sought freedom from political and religious control. Key figures include da Vinci, Bacon, and Galileo. The telescope allowed humanity to confirm Copernicus’s heliocentric theory, and microscopic red blood cells and protozoa were discovered. Science was understood as instrumental knowledge, and scientific and technical activities gained independence from political and religious power. Comte’s positivism is emphasized.

Postmodern Era

From the Second Industrial Revolution onward, the cooperation between science and technology of the modern age turned into interdependence. Scientific theories progress through technological advances such as genetic engineering. In the 19th century, Marx opposed the capitalist production system. Nietzsche critiqued society’s standardization of individuals. Weber emphasized reason and efficiency. The Frankfurt School analyzed the mechanisms of instrumental reason as the basis of human alienation in an efficient society. Habermas criticized science and technology as ideology. In the second half of the 20th century, environmental awareness emerged, starting with Carson’s “Silent Spring.” According to Kuhn, a scientific theory involves not only theoretical but also ideological, cultural, and political factors.

Postindustrial Society and Its Problems

Postindustrial society is the kind that derives from the changes brought about by the Second Industrial Revolution in the productive system and culture.

Features of Postindustrial Society

  1. Scientific Management Organization: Weber indicates the need to establish guidelines to ensure speed and efficiency in production and return on time. Two common aspects are the exaltation of efficiency and the subordination of the individual to the system.
  2. Expertise: Higher productivity requires continuous training and development. Professional interests are separated from ethical concerns.
  3. Computerization: Due to the arrival of information and communication technologies.
  4. Globalization: Levitt describes the social and economic changes resulting from increased international trade and cultural exchange. Anti-globalization movements have emerged.

Problems of Postindustrial Society

: 1) The economic and social paradox: Surján since 1970, new technologies (electronics, information …) and reinforces the tertiary sector of the economy. Appears renobables nuclear energy and generating a new type of partnership with the following characteristics: a) Expansion of sophisticated technological equipment. b) Increase of free time and a range of leisure activities. c) Major investment in medicine: In spite of this has not succeeded q increase life expectancy. d) Improvement of infrastructure: Best media, development of health and education in developed countries. The economic gap between rich and poor countries opening. Continues to increase poverty in the Third World. 2) Ecological consequences: With problems like pollution, climate change, depletion of energy resources, the disappearance of animal and plant species are subjects of concern q. The 1997 Kyoto protocol was aimed at a compromise to reduce the emission of polluting gases into the atmosphere.
Around the aesthetic: The term aesthetics comes from the Greek and means sensitive. From the etymological point of view is the ability estetica q we humans perceive sensations from a general perspective and aesthetics is the study of philosophy q beauty and art. Kant considers the independent aesthetic ethics and taste recognizes a new faculty of human beings. So we can say the object q q da disinterested pleasure is beautiful, according to Schelling’s beauty in art is made. An art object will be created by an artist and an aesthetic object is the one with q are described as objects of aesthetic experience.
Beauty: Throughout history have different criteria arise: 1) Good moral: in the Platonic theory of beauty this identifier with good. 2) Fact: In Romanticism, Hegel q difiende truth and beauty are 2 expressions of the same reality. 3) Symmetry: This involves the reflection of the idea of a canon in art. Defended x Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. 4) Perfection of sensuous pleasure: As perfect sense representation or pleasure with activity q sensitive. Kant joined these 2 meanings and gave importance to the sublime character of beauty.
Art: Definition: For a work of art q is q be classified artistica have the following conditions: 1) It is a product of reality percepcción and imajinación the artist. 2) The source of knowledge and aesthetic pleasure and social individual. 3) It is open to new interpretacciones or new meanings. 4) Help + exact form notions of life. 5) Improving our sensibilities. 6) It encourages reflection and predisposes to tranquility. 7) It promotes social relacción. Apreciacción: Throughout the history of art appears 3 findings: 1) Arts as knowledge, appears in antiquity and developed in romanticism. Born from the idea of art should be q inmitación of nature according to Aristotle this is one aspect of the desire for knowledge. Q Bergson says art gives us an intuitive knowledge of reality. 2) Arts and Activities: q Nietzsche believes art can liberate man from social conventions and located beyond the right from wrong. 3) Arts and sensitivity: It is important to the sensitive nature of art, Plato expresses the character of appearance of the world q is given in the artistic creation. 4) Art as commercial product: At present the works of art have become the subject of cultural market. Owning a piece of art is a sign of social status.