Exploring Moral Philosophies and Social Contracts
Intrinsic Fundamentals
Thinkers believe that external fundamentals compromise human autonomy and morality. Morality, as a guide to valuation, should be grounded in human life and actions.
Teleological Ethics
Justifying moral purpose focuses on happiness as the ultimate goal. Aristotle argued that happiness stems from what differentiates us from other creatures.
Hedonism
Devotion to pleasure is essential, requiring wisdom in calculation. Friendship is considered the greatest pleasure.
Utilitarianism
Stuart Mill shifted focus from individual pleasure to collective good. The best action contributes to overall well-being, aiming for the greatest good for the most people.
Duty-Based Ethics
Moral acts are driven by duty, not just happiness. Actions are good if performed out of duty, regardless of benefits.
Formal Ethics
Actions must follow a moral structure or correct rules. Kant’s categorical imperative suggests acting in a way that the maxim of your will could become universal law.
Discourse Ethics
Duty must be accepted by a wider group. Habermas, Apel, and Rawls argued that acts require agreement from others.
Cultural and Moral Relativism
Cultural Relativism
Moral codes vary significantly across cultures, reflecting social constructs. Good and bad are relative to each society, leading to acceptance of diverse values.
Moral Relativism
Moral systems are internally coherent but lack objective validity. From Sophists to Nietzsche, moral evaluation is seen as an individual matter.
Ethical Universalism
There is a single valid moral code, distinguishing right from wrong. Universalism seeks a universal moral truth, though determining the proper code is challenging.
From Myth to Philosophy
Myth explained the unknown before philosophy. The concept of cosmos signifies order and harmony governed by laws. Philosophy bridges science and religion, arising from our bewilderment at the world.
The Question of Liberation
Philosophizing involves doubting and critiquing certainties. It embraces uncertainty and sees questions as invitations to reflection. Unlike science, philosophy offers multiple perspectives rather than definitive answers.
Social Nature and Contracts
Social Nature
Humans are inherently social beings. The distinction between nature (physis) and law (nomos) highlights instinctive tendencies versus societal rules.
Social Contract
Legitimate political authority arises from a social contract. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau offered different views on the general will and the organization of power.
Communitarianism
Prioritizes the collective, justifying individual sacrifices for community benefit. The state regulates private property and imposes taxes for the common good.
Liberalism
Prioritizes the individual, advocating for minimal state interference. Libertarians support a minimal state to allow individuals to develop their capabilities freely.