Exploring Philosophy: Concepts, History, and Rationality
[Item 1]
Defining Philosophy and Its Origins
Philosophy is the practice of thinking and reasoning about fundamental concepts. Its origins trace back to Greece in the 6th century BC, encompassing thoughts about human existence, the world, science, and ourselves.
Branches of Philosophy
- Theoretical Philosophy: Explores knowledge (epistemology).
- Practical Philosophy: Examines ethics and politics, questioning concepts like freedom.
Understanding Myths
Myths are narratives featuring extraordinary beings, explaining natural phenomena. Types include:
- Theogonies: Narrate the origin and descent of gods.
- Cosmogonies: Explain the universe’s origin.
- Etiologies: Describe the emergence of new beings or aspects of reality.
Science vs. Myth
Science relies on observation, experimentation, and provisional knowledge, predicting future events and explaining underlying causes. Myth is imaginative, lacks predictive power, and doesn’t transform the world through technology.
Historical Stages of Philosophy
- Ancient (6th century BC – 4th century AD): Explored fundamental reality (Socrates, Aristotle).
- Medieval (4th – 14th centuries): Subordinated to theology (St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas).
- Modern (17th – 18th centuries): Rationalism (Descartes, Leibniz) and empiricism (Locke, Kant).
- Contemporary (19th – 20th centuries): Idealism, positivism (Marx, Unamuno).
Core Philosophical Disciplines
- Epistemology: Studies the possibility, origin, and limits of knowledge.
- Logic: Analyzes valid reasoning.
- Metaphysics: Explores the nature of reality.
- Aesthetics: Reflects on art and beauty.
- Ethics: Deals with individual behavior.
- Political Philosophy: Discusses the best way to live and organize the state.
Philosophy and Its History: Philosophers draw inspiration from past ideas, debating and defending theses. Diverse opinions and evolving perspectives enrich philosophical discourse.
[Item 2]
Defining Rationality
Rationality is using reason to make optimal choices. It has two forms:
- Theoretical Rationality: Choosing the best reasons for a statement’s truth (“There is a book on the table”).
- Practical Rationality: Choosing the best actions to achieve a goal (“Catch a bus”).
Theoretical Rationality: Statements and Propositions
Statements (propositions) affirm or deny something, capable of being true or false (“Birds fly”). Types include:
- Analytical Propositions (logic, mathematics): General, necessary truths, not requiring empirical testing.
- Definitions: “A triangle has three angles.”
- Mathematical axioms and theorems.
- Logical truths: “Either raining or not raining.”
- Synthetic Propositions (empirical sciences): Knowledge about the real world, requiring empirical testing.
Truth, Identity, and Correspondence
Analytic propositions are true by definition, based on principles like:
- Identity: Something is itself (“A river is a river”).
- Contradiction: Something cannot be and not be simultaneously.
- Excluded Middle: A statement is either true or false.
Truth as correspondence: A proposition is true if it aligns with reality.
Reliable: Credible, without error. Fallible: Capable of being misleading. Belief: Commitment to an idea considered true.
Beliefs, Rationality, and Knowledge
Beliefs are propositions we’re convinced are true. Theoretical rationality supports or rejects beliefs. Knowledge consists of justified true beliefs, obtained through theoretical rationality.
Critical Thinking and Skepticism
Critical thinking rationally analyzes thoughts and beliefs, connecting with scientific skepticism, which accepts beliefs only after rigorous testing. Skeptics critique “pseudoscience” – theories masquerading as scientific.
Practical Rationality
Practical rationality involves finding and choosing the best actions to achieve a goal.
[Item 4]
Fundamental Philosophical Problems
Philosophy focuses on two main areas:
- Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology): Explores the possibility, origin, nature, and truth of knowledge.
- Metaphysics: Investigates the nature of reality.
- Materialism: Reality is material.
- Idealism: Reality is spiritual.
- Dualism: Reality encompasses both matter and spirit.
Philosophical Skepticism
Skeptics doubt everything, believing knowledge is subjective. This perspective can lead to inner peace by avoiding conflicts arising from beliefs.
Descartes’ Method
Descartes aimed to establish philosophy as a science through four steps:
- Raise Doubts: Question sensory experiences (e.g., a stick appearing refracted in water).
- Distinguish Dreaming from Reality: Some experiences are real, others are not.
- Employ Logical and Mathematical Reasoning: Consider the possibility of an evil genius deceiving us.
- Conclude: “I think, therefore I am” – the act of doubting proves existence.
St. Thomas Aquinas’ Five Ways
St. Thomas Aquinas offered five arguments for God’s existence:
- First Way: Argument from motion.
- Second Way: Argument from causation.
- Third Way: Argument from contingency.
- Fourth Way: Argument from degree.
- Fifth Way: Argument from teleology.
Concepts
- Concept: A general idea expressed by words (e.g., circle, justice).
- Arguments: Reasons given to defend or criticize a claim.
- Truth: A proposition that is true, as opposed to false.
- Abstract: An element common to various objects, relating to general ideas.