Exploring the History and Philosophy of Science
Science from Greco-Medieval to Contemporary
Aristotelian Universe
Finite, Ordered, and Geocentric: Aristotle’s model presented the universe as a large, living organism with an inherent order. His essentialist explanations of phenomena were based on the object itself. This model was geocentric and deterministic, with a strong emphasis on causality and conservation.
Classic, Mechanistic Model
Heliocentric, Infinite, and Quantitative: This model shifted towards a heliocentric view, emphasizing an infinite, quantitative, and mathematical universe. It focused on efficient causes, experimental nature, and the power of human invention. Newton’s law of gravitation played a crucial role in shaping this understanding.
Contemporary Science and Philosophy
Relative Truth and Multiple Perspectives: Modern science acknowledges the limitations of a finite and unchangeable universe. The Big Bang Theory has led to the understanding that truth can be relative and space may not be homogeneous. Scientific knowledge is characterized by rationality, systematic investigation, and demonstrability, while striving for objectivity and universality.
Classification of Scientific Knowledge
- Empirical Sciences: Focus on observable phenomena, including natural and social sciences.
- Formal Sciences: Deal with abstract objects, such as mathematics and logic.
Construction of Scientific Knowledge
- Laws: Describe regularities in observed phenomena.
- Theory: Explains and connects laws, providing order, deductive power, and consistency.
- System: A comprehensive framework integrating various elements and their relationships.
Scientific Methods
- Deductive Method: Proceeds from general principles to specific conclusions, but doesn’t generate new information.
- Inductive Method: Moves from specific observations to general conclusions, potentially generating new knowledge. It involves generalization, which can be complete (examining all elements) or incomplete (based on a sample).
- Hypothetical-Deductive Method: Addresses problematic observations by formulating hypotheses, deducing consequences, and testing them to confirm or refute the hypothesis.
Technology and Science
Technology has always been intertwined with the pursuit of knowledge and the development of practical instruments. Early humans developed tools for survival, while ancient Greek philosophers sought to understand and classify different forms of knowledge. The Renaissance saw a closer relationship between technology and science, which intensified in the 19th century as science began to drive technological advancements.
Theology and Human Reason
Theology seeks to understand and approach the divine, exploring its relationship with the physical world and humanity. Humans possess reason, which allows us to comprehend reality. This capacity has two functions: theoretical (acquiring knowledge) and practical (guiding our actions).
Ancient Greek Thought
Ancient Greek thinkers were among the first to question the nature of reason. They viewed it as the ability to think theoretically and grasp universal concepts. Presocratic philosophers explored the distinction between appearance and reality, while Socrates emphasized the need to define things and understand their essence.
Metaphysics and the Nature of Reality
Metaphysics delves into the fundamental nature of reality, beyond what our senses perceive. It investigates the ultimate principles that govern existence, encompassing all concrete and particular phenomena. Key questions include:
Matter or Spirit?
Is reality primarily composed of matter (the physical substance we perceive) or spirit (the mental or non-physical aspect)?
Unity or Multiplicity?
- Monism: Explains existence through a single substance or principle.
- Dualism: Posits two distinct and opposing substances, such as matter and spirit (e.g., Plato).
- Pluralism: Suggests that reality is composed of multiple substances and originating principles (e.g., atomism).