Exploring the Nature of Truth and Certainty
Notion of Certainty
To be certain is to be sure of the truth and uphold security criteria.
Notion of Ontology
Ontology is a philosophical discipline that explores the nature of being, as things exist in various ways.
Notion of Core Ontology
Core ontology is fundamental. It examines the essence, the characteristic(s) representing a thing, differentiating it from others. This thing, comprised of its essence, can be an individual, a species, a genus, etc.
Relationship Between Essential and Other Notes
Notes interrelate hierarchically, some deriving from others. Essential notes determine others through qualitative hierarchy. True knowledge is knowing the essence of something, as the rest of its qualities can be inferred.
Essence and Classification
Essence is universal and acts as a model for classifying objects or beings, helping us discern and differentiate them. We rely on mental models to organize our daily experiences.
What is a Definition?
A definition describes what something is, not merely our idea of it.
Plato and the Platonic Essence
Plato argues for universals in several ways:
- Idealism exists outside our world, in a separate world of ideas.
- Images in our minds are copies of this world.
- Things in this world are created based on this world of ideas.
Ockham and Essences
Ockham denies:
- The existence of essences shared by all individuals of the same type (universal essences).
- The existence of separate ideals for individuals that determine their authenticity. All things are equally authentic as they cannot be compared to external ideals.
The Correspondence Theory of Truth
This Aristotelian/Platonic theory posits that truth is a perfect correspondence between intellect and the essence of something. True knowledge means our ideas perfectly match divine ideas. This is a metaphysical theory, incorporating elements beyond the physical world.
Consistency in Formal Sciences
This theory doesn’t apply to formal sciences (mathematics and logic). Mathematics deals with numbers and geometric figures that don’t exist in reality. Logic deals with reasoning laws internal to reason.
Analytic Propositions
In analytic propositions, the predicate’s content is included in the subject’s notion. The predicate results from analyzing the subject’s essential forms.
Synthetic Propositions
In synthetic propositions, the predicate isn’t contained in the subject. They aren’t universal or necessary and express statements about the world.
Consensus Theory of Truth
Theories gain acceptance through consensus among experts after rigorous review. This doesn’t define truth itself.
Pragmatic Theory of Truth
Knowledge has a practical function and is useful as a tool. Its utility means it leads to success when applied to reality. Success supports truth, while failure indicates falsehood.
Notion of Perceptible Phenomena
Perceptible phenomena are anything perceived by the senses or their extensions.
Truth in Perceptible Phenomena
The truth of these phenomena is immediate, a matter of measuring, weighing, describing, etc. Ideal knowledge would perceive all reality, but humans lack this capacity and create rational constructs to explain phenomena.
Notion of Theory in Relation to Phenomena
Theory is the instrument of rational explanation. Examples include plate tectonics explaining mountain formation and solar storms explaining the Northern Lights. Theories are rational structures explaining phenomena, describing how and why they occur.
Probative Value of Experiments
Experiments involve producing phenomena under controlled conditions to observe variables. Their probative power is limited, both quantitatively (many theoretical structures are unverifiable) and qualitatively (experiments test only aspects of a theory). An experiment’s importance depends on the tested aspect’s relevance.
Consistency Criterion in Empirical Science
Consistency in empirical science involves aligning phenomena with other theories in the same field and related fields. An example of inconsistency would be alien visits in spaceships, as there’s no reliable perceptual data.
Why Some Theories Prevail
Sometimes, a triumphant theory not only surpasses its rival but also explains and exposes its errors. The Copernican heliocentric theory is an example.