Exploring Western Ethical Philosophies: Eudaemonism to Stoicism
Eudaemonism
Its highest representatives, Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, had a significant impact on Western culture. They claim that human beings yearn for happiness as the supreme good. True happiness is achieved by accomplishing one’s prioritized goals. Happiness is the ultimate natural goal that gives meaning and reason. Being happy involves continuous human activity, specifically theoretical (intelligence) and practical (practical intelligence). Humans uphold morals and virtues by practicing ethical virtues, enabling them to choose what best suits their happiness and perfection with wisdom, moderation, and consistency. The wise individual acts according to their needs. Average virtue guarantees happiness and enduring life in a society governed by just laws. Reason enables contemplation and wise decisions for societal living.
Hedonistic Ethics
Argues that moral action is justified by “Pleasure.” Two schools are notable:
Epicureanism
Founded by Epicurus, it posits that the wise seek self-sufficiency. The wise are cautious and moderately happy, avoiding excesses, and finding virtue in enjoying natural pleasures in an orderly manner. Satisfaction of natural desires marks the beginning and end of a happy life. Happiness is attained by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain, determined through empirical investigation of human behavior. Their motto is “live according to Nature.” Moral reason guides the wise in calculating activities that yield more pleasure and less pain, distributing intelligence throughout life’s pleasures. Morality is the art of living happily.
Utilitarianism
Focuses on the “useful” property of any object to produce advantage, benefit, pleasure, or happiness. Good moral actions lead to the happiness of others. Human action is driven by pleasure-seeking social feelings. Sympathy leads to maximizing happiness. The principle of morality and rational decision-making aims to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Pleasures differ in quality; there are higher and lower pleasures. Those who experience both can choose the superior ones, often preferring moral and intellectual pleasures. Utilitarianism asserts that humans working together create a prosperous and happy society.
Ethical Duty
Its highest representative is Kant. Ethics should focus on rational, formal features with universal validity rather than specific moral standards. Ethics materials often rely on Theology (Good is what God wants), Ontology (Good is people meeting their goals according to their nature), Psychology (Good is pleasure or satisfaction of the moral sense), or Sociology (Good is what is transmitted by education or societal norms). However, these approaches struggle to explain human freedom and autonomy. Kant argues that humans are morally heteronomous if their will is externally determined. True morality lies in knowing how to act well and choosing to do so. For Kant, moral good is fulfilling one’s specific duty. The good will is intrinsically good, acting freely and independently according to its own laws, which defines human dignity. Hypothetical imperatives represent the practical necessity of an action as a means to an end. Kant’s fundamental ethical question is: “What should I do?” Moral duties, expressed as rules, raise the question: “What conditions make a moral standard universally valid and obligatory?” Subjective preferences are selfish and do not substantiate universality. A good moral will performs actions with universal validity out of respect for duty— “Duty for Duty’s Sake.” Acting according to duty is acting morally. This “Formal” approach doesn’t dictate specific actions but how to behave, indicating that the will must act as a universal legislator. Only humans can overcome selfishness and adopt a universal perspective, empathizing with others. This moral autonomy leads to recognizing human dignity; humans are priceless and should not be treated as mere means to an end.
Ethics of Self-Sufficiency
Represented by the Stoics, who amplify Aristotle’s perfectionism. Their motto is “live according to Nature.” The wise are self-sufficient when they discover and accept the immutable order, accepting fate, ensuring peace of mind and emotional control, regardless of suffering or others’ opinions. Serenity is the sole source of happiness. Virtue is happiness itself, manifested as self-sufficiency.