Expository and Argumentative Texts
1) Expository Texts
1.1) Definition
Expository writing aims to inform and provide knowledge about a subject with a didactic intent. It must be orderly, clear, and objective. Examples of expository texts include scientific articles, most academic texts, textbooks or lecture notes, and newspaper articles.
1.2) Types
Expository texts can be divided into:
- Informative texts: These clearly and objectively report on a topic of general interest. In principle, they should be easily understood, but their complexity can vary depending on the intended audience.
- Scientific expositions: These have a high degree of difficulty because they aim to explain complex phenomena and concepts, often requiring some previous knowledge. They are typically displayed in combination with other types of text, such as instructional and descriptive, but above all, combined with argumentative writing. This is because exposition rarely limits itself to providing information; explanation often involves an element of argumentation. However, exposition differs from argumentation in that exposition is responsible for displaying information, while argumentation aims to prove a point.
1.3) Structure
Expository texts are based on a central idea that is developed throughout the text. The elements of the text follow a logical relationship, which can be established through:
- Cause and effect: Explaining the causes of certain effects.
- Chronological order: Presenting information in a time-based sequence, often used in expositions that trace the development of a scientific subject.
- Hierarchical order: Organizing information based on its importance.
When selecting information, the author must rely on their knowledge of the subject, establish a perspective from which to approach it, and consider the assumed knowledge of the audience. The basic structure of expository texts consists of three parts (the key is a clear and coherent presentation that allows the reader to follow the thread of the exposition):
- Introduction: This section introduces the topic. In longer texts, it may include the temporal and spatial context, relevant literature, etc.
- Development: This section addresses the topic in detail and incorporates subtopics and examples, which are crucial in exposition as they provide support and aid in understanding the text.
- Conclusion: This section closes the text by summarizing the main points, evaluating the information presented, etc. It may not always be present, as it is sometimes unnecessary.
The subject can be treated analytically (deductively), starting with a thesis and then explaining it, or synthetically (inductively), moving from individual cases to a conclusion. Both forms can also occur simultaneously.
2) Argumentative Texts
2.1) Definition
Argumentative writing seeks to express opinions or refute them to persuade the receiver. In other words, it aims to get the receiver to agree with or oppose a particular viewpoint or even take action, such as voting for a certain political party. Therefore, argumentation requires the author to possess comprehensive knowledge and utilize persuasive techniques. Argumentative texts employ the referential function (providing information) and the appellative function (appealing to the reader), which are essential in developing arguments. Examples of argumentative texts include essays, political speeches (at rallies or parliamentary debates), legal arguments (defense counsel’s address to the judge), and debates and discussions on radio and television. Argumentative texts are often accompanied by exposition to present the issue objectively and make the argument more convincing. Thus, exposition and argumentation frequently intertwine.
2.2) Structure
The selection of information depends on the topic and the situation. It is crucial to consider the receiver’s potential viewpoints because the author needs to be aware of their perspective. Additionally, the author must address and refute potential counterarguments. Argumentation is typically divided into:
- Introduction: This section usually presents the thesis, which is the central idea that will be discussed and supported.
- Development: This section contains the body of the argument, where evidence and reasoning are presented to confirm the thesis. It may include partial conclusions that, in turn, lead to new arguments. The author can utilize various types of arguments, such as:
- Appeal to authority: Citing experts’ opinions.
- Appeal to popular opinion: Using arguments that align with the majority view (e.g., “no one likes…”, “we all know…”).
- Proverbs and sayings: Employing common wisdom to support a point.
- Analogy: Relating the reasoning to similar cases.
- Exemplification: Providing specific examples to illustrate a general point.
- Personal experience: Using arguments based on the author’s own life.
- Conclusion: This section reinforces the thesis by summarizing the main arguments and restating the central point. If the thesis is presented at the beginning and then developed with arguments, the structure is deductive (analytical). If the thesis is stated at the end, it is inductive (synthetic). Both approaches can also be combined, in which case the thesis is called a framed thesis.
2.3) Techniques and Linguistic Forms of Argumentation
The order of ideas is crucial for the reader to follow the line of argumentation and understand the text. Therefore, it is important to structure the content into paragraphs and establish clear relationships between them, which can be achieved through the use of markers or connectors. The ideas should be presented clearly and directly, focusing on a few strong and well-supported arguments rather than numerous weak ones. To make arguments more engaging, resources such as examples and comparisons can be used, allowing for a transition from concrete to general concepts and making the discourse more entertaining. Other resources include repetition of ideas, specific language structures to reinforce arguments, irony, metaphor, etc.
Further linguistic characteristics can be observed in:
- Lexicon: Argumentative texts often employ vocabulary related to expressing opinions. If the text falls within a specific area of expertise, technical terms may be used. However, if it addresses a more general topic, a standard register with commonly used vocabulary is typically employed.
- Syntax: Argumentation relies on logical reasoning (deductive or inductive), so coordinated and subordinated sentences are prevalent.
- Verbs: The present tense dominates in argumentative texts.