Fascism and Nazism in Europe (1919-1945)

Posted on Nov 4, 2024 in History

ITEM 10: Fascism and Democracy

1. Fascism and the Context

1.1 The Right-Wing Authoritarian

In the early twentieth century, Europe was characterized by:

  • War
  • Revolutions
  • Depression

Many accused liberalism of causing this instability:

  • Failed to prevent war
  • Failed to prevent revolutions
  • Failed to prevent economic depression

The right-wing sought to impose state authority over the masses. It supported authoritarianism in:

  • Private classes or privileged groups such as:
    • Nobility
    • Landowners
    • Big business
  • Institutions that could influence and mobilize the masses:
    • Catholic Church
    • Army
    • Government officials

Some right-wing groups gained power through violence and intimidation.

Characteristics of the authoritarian right:

  • Rejection of the bourgeois world and its liberal values
  • Rejection of political liberalism (parliamentary democracy)
  • Suppression of social revolution, Marxism, and communism
  • Strong nationalism, xenophobia, and racism
  • Militarism: militarized society and values imposed by force

1.2 Peculiarities of Fascist Movements

Fascist movements were considered modern and revolutionary, aiming to create a new order. What distinguished fascism from other traditional right-wing movements was:

  • Mobilization of the masses from below (social unrest and mobilization)
  • Use of propaganda and demagoguery
  • Led by a charismatic leader, often indifferent to religious matters, with supporters in the army and proponents of free-market economics
  • Irrational beliefs and ideas

Demagoguery: The practice of political flattery to win popular favor.

1.3 Authoritarian and Fascist Regimes

Undemocratic regimes were widespread in Europe during the interwar period. Very few countries retained liberal institutions.

First wave (1920s): Primarily in Eastern and Southern European countries.

  • Antonio de Oliveira Salazar (Portugal)
  • Miguel Primo de Rivera (Spain)
  • Benito Mussolini (Italy)

Second wave (1930s): Primarily in Central European countries.

  • Adolf Hitler (Germany)

Most fascist regimes triumphed after a coup (except Spain in 1936). Fascism also emerged outside Europe, notably in Latin America and Japan.

2. Mussolini’s Italy

2.1 Rise of Fascism to Power (1919-1922)

The end of democracy in Italy in 1922 was due to several factors:

  • Dissatisfaction with the peace agreements after World War I (considered insufficient)
  • In 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci di combattimento, promoting nationalism, revolutionary syndicalism, and anti-clericalism.
  • The economic crisis and the fear of social revolution
  • Parliamentary fragmentation and weak institutions

In this situation, Mussolini organized the March on Rome (1922) with popular support. King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister.

2.2 Consolidation of the Fascist Regime

Mussolini ruled with a minority government until 1924. He gradually suppressed political and social opposition. In 1925, his dictatorship began, lasting until 1945. Mussolini became known as “Il Duce” (The Leader).

  • Political parties and trade unions were dissolved.
  • The free press was abolished.
  • The National Fascist Party became the sole legal party, absorbing all other fascist groups and strengthening the regime.
  • Until 1929, the party’s control was strengthened, and insufficiently fascist officials were expelled.
  • Mussolini made peace with the Catholic Church through the Lateran Treaty (1929).

2.3 Corporate-Totalitarian State (1929-1940)

Employers and workers were forced into state-controlled corporations to negotiate with the government. The state aimed to organize citizens according to their needs.

  • The government was given the power to reduce wages and increase working hours.
  • Economic policies included deflation, protectionism, and corporate mergers.
  • The regime sought to control the economy to achieve self-sufficiency and population growth.
  • In the 1930s, the regime became more totalitarian to:
    • Protect the country from the Great Depression
    • Imitate Nazi Germany
    • Militarize the country
  • Industrial growth came at the expense of a low standard of living and high unemployment.

3. Nazism in Germany

3.1 The Weimar Republic and the Rise of Nazism (1918-1933)

After World War I, Germany established a new parliamentary democratic republic known as the Weimar Republic. The new regime faced several problems:

  • The defeat and the Treaty of Versailles:
    • The treaty was seen as a humiliation by many Germans, who blamed the government for the defeat.
    • Many forces sought to revise the treaty.
    • Adolf Hitler created the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers’ Party).
  • Postwar economic disorder:
    • Hyperinflation and devaluation of the currency
    • War debts
    • Anti-Semitism increased, with Jews being blamed for the economic situation.
    • In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler explained Nazi racism.
  • Weakness of the regime against revolutionary attempts and coups:
    • The government had to cope with separatist movements and attempted coups.
    • The regime moved to the right, increasing the power of the Nazis.
  • Parliament was divided, and governments were unstable:
    • No party had a sufficient majority to govern alone.
    • Unstable coalitions allowed Hitler to come to power.
  • The Great Depression (1929):
    • The depression severely affected Germany, leading to social unrest and unemployment.
    • The German middle class, fearing further decline, supported the Nazis.
    • Hitler came to power on January 30, 1933.

3.2 The Nazis in Power (1933-1945)

Key measures implemented by the Nazis:

  • Removal of democracy and extermination of all opposition:
    • Parliament was dissolved, and new elections were called.
    • Political parties and free associations were banned.
    • An emergency law was passed, allowing the government to pass laws without parliament.
    • In 1934, Hitler declared himself Führer (Leader).
    • Hitler eliminated all opposition within his party during the Night of the Long Knives, using the SS and Gestapo.
    • The Holocaust (Final Solution) was implemented, targeting Jews, Roma, homosexuals, disabled people, and leftists.
  • A war economy and aggressive foreign policy:
    • The economy was subjected to Nazi goals, focusing on rearming the army and preparing for war.
    • The regime relied on big business.
    • Unemployment was abolished, gaining popular support.
    • Protectionist economic policies failed, leading to commercial imperialism.
    • The Treaty of Versailles was not respected.
    • An aggressive and provocative foreign policy was pursued, ultimately leading to World War II.