Feminism, Pacifism, Environmentalism: Shaping Society
Feminism
Following the incorporation of women into the workplace and education, their roles began to shift. As women became more independent and achieved higher levels of education, feminism emerged as a significant social movement in the U.S. and Europe.
In 1949, Simone de Beauvoir published The Second Sex, often referred to as “the bible of feminism.” This influential work argued that women were not individually identified in the same way as men and that the characteristics defining a “normal” woman were not genetic but shaped by the education she received. Simone influenced many women to seek change, highlighted by her famous phrase: “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.”
Betty Friedan also gained prominence with her book The Feminine Mystique. Key developments in the activist movement included:
- The marketing of the birth control pill (1960)
- The creation of the League for the Institution of Divorce (1966)
- The founding of the National Organization for Women (NOW), chaired by Betty Friedan (1966)
Feminist associations subsequently spread throughout Europe, gradually achieving legal recognition.
In Great Britain, the Sex Discrimination Act and the Equal Pay Act were established in 1975. The momentum towards real legal equality continued into the 80s and was further addressed at the IV World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995). Since then, the issue of women’s equality has been recognized politically and socially. However, while legal equality has been achieved in many countries, true equality has not always been realized. In some developing nations, legal equality remains an ongoing struggle.
Pacifism
This movement arose from the fear of a potential Third World War amid ongoing clashes between the capitalist and communist blocs. Figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Martin Luther King Jr., Bertrand Russell, and Albert Einstein were early supporters, advocating for military and nuclear disarmament. An active social movement developed with the signing of the Göttingen Declaration against the nuclearization of Germany (1955). Following the installation of nuclear weapons, the “Kampf dem Atomtod” (Combat Atomic Death) movement emerged in Germany (1958), and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) was founded in Great Britain (1958). Pacifist activity decreased during periods of peaceful coexistence but re-emerged during the Reagan era’s military buildup and the deployment of Euromissiles by the USSR.
In 1980, the END (European Nuclear Disarmament) was founded, organizing peace movements that involved diverse groups.
In Spain, following the electoral victory of the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) in 1982, a peace movement advocating against entry into NATO began. Despite this, Spain soon joined NATO and remains a member. The peace movement continues, though its focus has shifted from solely opposing nuclear weapons to calling for the end of all wars between countries.
Environmentalism
The environmental movement gained initial traction following protests against the exposure of sailors to nuclear radiation from atomic testing in the Pacific.
Greenpeace was founded in 1971 with the initial goal of preventing a nuclear test blast in Alaska. Key milestones followed:
- On May 11, 1971, the Menton Message was signed, alerting the UN to environmental degradation.
- In 1972, the first report from the Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth, was published.
- The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created in 1972.
A series of natural disasters increased environmental awareness within society. In 1980, the Global 2000 Report was published, presenting findings even more alarming than those of the Club of Rome. Disasters continued through the 80s, including the chemical leak in Bhopal, India (1984) and the nuclear accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986). In 1987, the Brundtland Report was published, introducing the concept of sustainable development for the first time – advocating for development that is moderate and respects the environment to preserve the planet for future generations.