Ferdinand VII of Spain: From Absolutism to Carlist Wars

Ferdinand VII and the Return to Absolutism (1814-1820)

The Treaty of Valençay and the Manifesto of the Persians

Ferdinand VII regained the Spanish crown in 1814 through the Treaty of Valençay. Upon his return, he received the Manifesto of the Persians from absolutist deputies, urging him to annul the Cádiz Constitution and reinstate absolute rule.

Suppression of Liberal Reforms

Supported by the army and popular enthusiasm, Ferdinand VII issued the Decree of May 4, 1814. This decree abolished the Cádiz Cortes’ work and reinstated the Old Regime, including the Inquisition and censorship. The Church and nobility regained their privileges, while liberals faced repression, imprisonment, or exile.

International Context: The Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance

The international climate favored the return to absolutism. The Congress of Vienna, organized by the victors over Napoleon, redrew the European map, restoring absolutist monarchies and establishing the Holy Alliance for their defense. Spain played a secondary role in these events.

Economic Crisis and the Collapse of Absolutism

Spain faced a dire economic situation after the war, burdened by public debt and economic depression. Colonial revenues dwindled due to independence uprisings. The privileged classes resisted paying taxes, hindering attempts at treasury reform. The government’s inability to address these issues without dismantling the old social structure led to the collapse of absolute monarchy.

Liberal Conspiracies and Military Coups

Lacking a broad social base, the liberals relied on disaffected soldiers and secret societies to organize conspiracies and military coups. Several uprisings failed until Colonel Rafael del Riego’s revolt succeeded in Cabezas de San Juan in 1820.

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

Return of the Constitution and Liberal Reforms

Forced to swear allegiance to the 1812 Constitution, Ferdinand VII entered a new phase of his reign. An amnesty allowed exiled liberals to return. The Cortes resumed the bourgeois revolution, aiming to dismantle feudalism and liberalize trade and industry. Key reforms included abolishing entail and lordships, tax reform, property confiscations, suppression of the Inquisition, and press freedom. The National Militia, a volunteer armed corps, was established to defend these reforms.

Royal Resistance and Realist Uprisings

Unwilling to accept constitutional rule, the king vetoed any unfavorable legislation. Realist uprisings, supported by the Church, emerged in Catalonia, Navarra, and Galicia. In 1823, an absolutist regency was formed in Urgel.

Divisions Among Liberals

The liberals split into two factions: moderates, who favored gradual reforms, and radicals, who sought more rapid change. The moderates initially governed, followed by the radicals in 1822. Political tension remained high.

Intervention of the Holy Alliance

Ferdinand VII sought help from the Holy Alliance. The Congress of Verona decided to intervene, sending the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, a French army, to restore absolutism. The Cortes were defeated in Cádiz, and Ferdinand VII was reinstated as absolute monarch. The French army occupied Spain for five years.

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Absolutist Repression

The third stage began with a harsh repression of liberalism, led by the Boards of Faith and the police. Ferdinand VII nullified all acts of the Liberal government. The administration and military were purged, and liberals were exiled. The Inquisition was not reinstated.

Economic Reforms and Royalist Discontent

The loss of the American colonies worsened Spain’s financial situation. Minister López Ballesteros initiated timid economic and administrative reforms, including a Commercial Code, state budget, Banco de Fomento, and Madrid Stock Exchange. These reforms aimed to attract the financial and industrial bourgeoisie but clashed with the interests of the reactionary nobility and clergy, leading to absolutist riots like the Malcontents uprising in Catalonia.

The Rise of Carlism and the Pragmatic Sanction

From 1826, the ultra-royalist movement coalesced around Don Carlos María Isidro, Ferdinand VII’s brother and heir presumptive. The birth of Ferdinand’s daughter, Isabel, in 1830 changed the succession. Ferdinand VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction in 1832, repealing the Salic Law and allowing female succession. Two factions emerged: the Carlists (reactionary absolutists) and the Isabelline (moderate liberals). Queen Maria Cristina, regent during Ferdinand’s illness, sought support from the Isabelline faction to secure her daughter’s crown, allowing the return of exiled liberals. The Carlists, left with no other option, prepared for revolt. Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833 triggered the Carlist Wars.