Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Loss of Spanish America
**Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberalism. The Emancipation of Spanish America**
By the Treaty of Valençay (1813), Napoleon accepted the return to Spain of Ferdinand VII and the gradual withdrawal of French troops from our country. Ferdinand VII (1814-1833) was contrary to liberalism. His main objective at the beginning of his reign was ending the work of the Cortes of Cadiz and restoring absolutism. Once in Spain, he had the support of the most conservative (nobility and clergy), who signed the *Manifesto of the Persians*, in which the king demanded a return to the old regime. The king was also supported by most of the people. Thus, Ferdinand annulled the 1812 Constitution and the laws of Cadiz.
Absolutist Reign (1814-1820)
In a first stage of absolute reign (1814-1820), the King and his administration proved unable to boost the economy, destroyed during the War of Independence. The peasants were ruined, commerce was paralyzed, and industry was obsolete and practically nonexistent. Public debt increased significantly by not raising taxes. In addition, the state had to deal with military spending for the defense of Latin America, where the emancipatory process had begun. There were numerous coup attempts by the military near liberalism (Espoz y Mina, Lacy, Diaz Porlier). The king’s response was harsh repression against liberalism.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
On January 1, 1820, however, the uprising succeeded under Colonel Riego in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville). Riego got support in Andalusia, and the eventual triumph of the delivery across the country. Ferdinand VII was forced to swear allegiance to the Constitution of 1812 but did not lose his throne. Thus began the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823). The elections gave the victory to the Liberals, who started a major piece of legislation: the abolition of the Inquisition, freedom of commerce and industry, abolition of guilds and privileges, and the stately building of a national militia (a body of volunteers who ensure order and the Constitution of 1812). The reforms met with opposition from the king. *Partidas* were created, who came to establish an absolutist regency in Urgell. Moreover, among liberals, there were two opposing trends: the *doceanistas* (moderate liberals) and *veinteañistas* (more exalted and supporters of deeper reforms). After the defeat of Napoleon, the European political context was the restoration to the throne of absolute monarchs who lost the crown due to the Napoleonic invasions and to combat liberalism on the continent. Ferdinand asked for help from the Holy Alliance. In April 1823, a French army (The Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis) came into Spanish territory and restored Ferdinand as absolute monarch, staying in our country until 1828.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
The third period of Ferdinand VII is known as the Ominous Decade (1823-1833). It was a return to the *ancien regime* and a harsh crackdown on liberals. Riego and many others were executed or forced into exile. Still, there were coup attempts, like that of Torrijos. The national militia was suppressed. The economic reform efforts promoted by the king failed due to poor fiscal policy and debt. Given the poor condition of Spain, the king decided on timid attempts at reform. He sought the support of the financial and industrial bourgeoisie. This attitude provoked an ultra-absolutist reaction. Carlos María Isidro (brother of the King) won substantial support among the nobility and clergy and pressed the king to reverse the reforms. By the Salic law, women could not reign in Spain. Isabel was born in 1830, and Fernando VII abolished the Salic Law by the Pragmatic Sanction, which allowed Elizabeth to inherit the throne. The supporters of Charles (Carlist) refused to accept the situation. Ferdinand VII died in 1833, reaffirming in his will his daughter as his successor.
The Emancipation of Spanish America
In the first quarter of the nineteenth century, Spain lost most of its possessions in America, except Cuba and Puerto Rico. Broadly, the factors that explain the process of emancipation are:
- The growing discontent of the Creoles, descendants of Spanish whites born in America, who, despite their wealth and culture, were denied access to major political offices in the colonies, reserved for the Spaniards. The Creoles only held positions in the councils.
- The limitations on free trade and economic development of the colonies imposed during the reign of Ferdinand VII. These limitations were damaging economically to the natives.
- The influence of Enlightenment ideas and the example of the independence of the United States.
- Britain’s support for secessionist movements.
- The political crisis that Spain suffered as a result of the French invasion.
In the independence process, we can distinguish two major phases:
First Phase (1808-1814)
The natives did not accept Joseph Bonaparte as king, and (as happened in the Peninsula) Boards were established that came to power in their territories. These boards, in theory, were faithful to Ferdinand VII, but some eventually declared themselves autonomous. In 1810, San Martín declared the independence of Argentina. When Fernando VII was restored to the throne, all colonies except Argentina returned to join the Spanish Crown.
Second Phase (1814-1824)
Rejection of absolutism quickly led to military pronouncements toward independence derived from the Creoles. Simón Bolívar led the wars against Spain in New Grenada and Venezuela. Ferdinand’s stance was intransigence, which stimulated the growth of the liberation movement. San Martin crossed the Andes, defeated the Spanish at Chacabuco, and led to the independence of Chile. From there, he moved by sea to Peru, where he joined the armies of Bolivar. The final victory was the defeat of the Spaniards at Ayacucho (1824) and the proclamation of independence of Bolivia by Sucre. In Mexico’s independence, the liberation movement was, in its early stages, indigenous in character and began with Hidalgo and Morelos. However, ultimate independence was achieved by Agustin Iturbide, of noble origin, who in 1821 declared the independence of Mexico.