Fernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Spanish Crisis
The Era of Fernando VII: Absolutism Versus Liberalism
The return of Fernando VII marked the end of liberal reforms.
The First Restoration (1814 to 1820)
Fernando VII returned in 1814 and was welcomed by the people. Encouraged by the Manifesto of the Persians, issued by army officers, the Church, and conservative politicians, he moved to overturn the Constitution and dissolve the Cortes. On May 4, 1814, the king led a coup, issuing a decree that nullified all reforms approved by the Cortes. Many liberals were forced into exile to escape persecution.
In 1814, Fernando VII restored institutions such as the councils and the Inquisition. He reinstated manorial jurisdiction and privileges and suspended the confiscation initiated in 1813.
The restored absolute monarchy soon faced significant challenges:
- Government Instability: Constant changes in ministers due to the king’s personal preferences and the influence of his inner circle.
- Economic Crisis: The Spanish state debt, exacerbated by the War of Independence and the emancipation of American territories, hindered trade relations. The government struggled to impose a tax system that would guarantee necessary revenue without affecting the economic and social privileges of various groups.
- Liberal Political Opposition: Liberals resorted to conspiracy and military rebellion, often channeled through secret societies like Freemasonry. These rebellions were expressed through pronouncements. After several unsuccessful uprisings, the rebellion led by Rafael del Riego in January 1820 triggered political change.
Military pronouncements sought to overthrow the government, with disgruntled military officers and businessmen collaborating with intellectuals, professionals, and sometimes liberal exiles. In January 1820, Rafael del Riego rebelled with his troops in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville), proclaiming the validity of the Constitution of 1812. Supported by the liberal bourgeoisie of Cadiz and La Coruna, Riego’s insurrection led Fernando VII to restore the Constitution of 1812.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Fernando VII swore to uphold the Constitution of 1812 in March 1820. The liberal government implemented reforms adopted in Cadiz, with some unique features. The liberals ruled with an armed militia but soon split into moderate and radical factions, facing military rebellions from absolutists.
Nationalist Militias
The government created a national militia, a civilian body outside the army, composed of armed citizens ready to defend the Constitution and the liberal regime. Intended for property-owning citizens who could afford their uniforms and equipment, municipalities began to cover the costs, allowing urban popular classes to join. The national militia became an ally of the left wing of liberalism.
Government Programs
The government restored laws passed in Cadiz, including the final elimination of the Inquisition (1820) and the abolition of the seigneurial regime. They also dismantled entailments, applying it to primogeniture, which were abolished. The number of monasteries and religious orders was reduced, with their goods passing to the state and being sold. Additionally, the government implemented a general regulation of public instruction, the first criminal code, and a new division of Spanish territory into 52 provinces.