Feudal Society and Economy in the Ancien Régime
Manorial Rights and Feudal Jurisdiction
Manorial rights encompassed jurisdictional powers, allowing lords (seigneurs) to exercise public authority within a larger territory (the manor). This jurisdiction extended beyond their personal lands to include areas with allodial owners (landowners with absolute ownership). Lords also exercised royal prerogatives, including military service obligations, justice, and tax collection. They could wage war, make peace, mint currency, issue decrees, and judge individuals and their domains, including travelers. They benefited economically from jurisdictional rights over roads, bridges, and thoroughfares, controlling the movement of goods, market permits, and levying fines. In addition, peasants were obligated to pay a tithe (a tenth of their harvest) to the Church to support the clergy and religious services, alongside various state taxes from which the privileged classes were exempt.
Traditional Industry and Manufacturing
While a portion of daily necessities was produced within the family unit, cities also had craft production controlled by guilds. Guilds were associations of artisans that regulated production volume, techniques, and prices. The gradual increase in demand for goods during the 16th and 17th centuries led some merchants and artisans to seek alternative production methods to circumvent guild control. This led to the rise of *domestic work*, where a merchant or craftsman would provide raw materials and tools to a farming family, who would then produce the goods in their own home. During the 17th century, another industrial production model emerged: *manufactories*. These were subsidized workshops, either state-sponsored or privately initiated, that focused on producing luxury goods.
Enlightened Despotism
The influence of Enlightenment ideals reached European courts, prompting some rulers to experiment with reforms. Enlightened monarchs, such as Frederick II of Prussia, Maria Theresa of Austria, and Charles III of Spain, implemented policies characterized by: centralized absolutism, administrative streamlining, promotion of education, and economic modernization. These programs often encouraged agricultural and industrial development and facilitated freer trade. However, the scope of these reforms was ultimately quite limited.
The Estates System: Social Hierarchy
The Estates System was a type of social organization originating in feudalism, where individuals were assigned to a specific social stratum, primarily by birth.
The Estates
Society was divided into estates, also known as orders, which were largely closed groups. Ascent between estates was extremely difficult. Traditional law recognized three estates:
- The Clergy: Responsible for spiritual matters.
- The Nobility: Responsible for military defense and governance.
- The Commoners: Responsible for producing material goods. This included diverse groups such as peasants, the bourgeoisie, and urban workers.
The defining characteristic of this system was its inherent civil inequality, dividing society into two main categories: the privileged and the unprivileged.
The Privileged Estates
The privileged estates enjoyed significant advantages, including exemption from most taxes and various rights.
- Clergy: Represented a very small portion of the population. They were exempt from direct taxes and received income from the tithe and their extensive landholdings (both urban and rural). The high clergy (abbots, bishops, and high-ranking canons) typically came from aristocratic families and lived luxuriously. The lower clergy (priests, pastors, and monks) often had peasant origins and did not share the same privileges.
- Nobility: Comprised approximately 2-3% of the population. They held the majority of land ownership and enjoyed numerous honorary, economic, and fiscal privileges. However, the nobility was not a homogenous group. There were significant differences between the wealthy and powerful nobles of the Court, the provincial nobility, and the *nobility of the robe* (those who acquired noble status through service to the state).
The Unprivileged Estates (The Third Estate)
The Third Estate encompassed the vast majority of the population and included a wide range of social groups. They shared a common opposition to the feudal system and a desire for civil equality.
- Bourgeoisie: The most economically dynamic group within the Third Estate. It could be further divided into:
- Rentier Bourgeoisie: Lived off the income from their property or capital investments.
- Financial Bourgeoisie: Involved in banking and tax collection.
- Manufacturing/Industrial Bourgeoisie: Involved in production.
- Petty Bourgeoisie: Artisans, small merchants, and professionals.
- Urban Working Class: Included manual laborers in cities, such as workers and domestic servants.
- Peasants: Constituted the largest segment of the population. They could be categorized as free peasants, laborers, or serfs (bound to the land).