Feudalism and Christian Kingdoms in Medieval Europe
Feudalism: Concept and Features
Feudalism was a political, social, and economic system in Western Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries, with the following characteristics:
- Loss of political power by kings
- Social organization based on relationships of dependence (king-nobles-peasants)
- Agrarian economy
- Influence of the Christian religion
- Romanesque as a common artistic style
Origin and Expansion
Origin: Instability after the death of Charlemagne (9th century), due to struggles between his successors, Muslim attacks in the Mediterranean, and a second wave of invaders:
- Vikings (or Normans), from Scandinavia, sacked European coasts.
- Magyars, from Hungary, attacked Western Europe.
Spread: Kings looked for military allegiance from nobles in exchange for concessions, and peasants sought the protection of nobles for land or work. Feudalism extended throughout Europe between the 9th and 11th centuries.
Curia Regis: An assembly of nobles and clergy who advised the king on major issues or main political decisions.
Feudal Economy
Organization of the Manor
Wealth was based on land. Fiefdoms or Manors were large territories that the king granted to the nobility and clergy for their services. They consisted of two parts:
- Demesne: Territory exploited directly by the lord, including his residence (castle), the best farmland cultivated by serfs, meadows, forests, and rivers.
- Dependent Holdings: Small plots of land granted by the lord to free peasants in exchange for territorial rent (part of the harvest) and personal benefits (some days of work at the demesne or certain services).
Work on the Manor
Manors were self-sufficient. Agricultural tasks were carried out there, and articles for everyday life were crafted in manor workshops.
- Work of land: Rudimentary tools (hoe, sickle, scythe, Roman plow), biennial crop rotation (half of the land left fallow), and very low crop yields.
- Items for daily life: Were made at the forge or by the carpenter. There were other facilities (mill, winepress, oven, press, bridge) owned by the lord, who collected taxes for their use.
- There was little trade, handled by itinerant merchants.
Catalan Counties
The Franks created the Spanish March (a border province south of the Pyrenees and divided into counties). Wilfred the Hairy united the counties (878), and Borrel II gained independence from the Franks (988).
Organization of Christian Groups
Government and Administration
- The government of Christian groups passed to hereditary kings or counts.
- Resettlement consisted of installing population and cultivating land in territory conquered from the Muslims. Presura was a widely used system, and land was occupied by free peasants as owners. Municipal Charters were written documents establishing privileges granted to settlers by the king or count.
- The administration of the territory was organized into districts surrounding a castle, governed and defended by a count.
Economic Activities
- Agrarian activities: Agriculture was basic, cultivating cereals and using the fallow system and simple tools. Livestock farming prevailed in the mountains.
- Urban activities: Crafts and trade were scarce and concentrated in cities. They were small and walled, and acted as political (palace of the king or count), religious (seat of the bishop), and economic (markets for agricultural and manufactured products) centers, such as Santiago, León, or Barcelona.
Christian Society
- Free peasants owned land, lived in villages, and gathered in open councils to address important issues.
- A small group of powerful people was formed by the nobility (managed and defended territory commissioned by kings) and abbots (ruled monasteries).
Estates
Estates were closed social groups, determined by birth. There were three, and each one performed a social function:
- Feudal relationship (Vassalage): Between a lord (king or great noble or cleric) and a vassal (noble of lower rank), with a pact of military allegiance in exchange for economic concessions. It took place in a commendation ceremony, with two parts:
- Homage: The vassal swore an oath of fealty to give the lord military aid and advice.
- Investiture: The lord gave a benefit or fiefdom to the vassal, including a large area of land and the right to govern it.
- Seigniorial relationship (Servitude): Between a lord, who gave protection and permission to work the land, and a peasant, who was bound to work on the demesne (serfs) or dependent holdings (free farmers). In this case, they had to give a portion of the harvest (territorial rent), days of work at the demesne (personal benefits), and taxes for government (jurisdictional rights).
Secular Clergy (lived amongst laypeople, bishops and priests) Regular Clergy (lived in a monastic community, abbots and monks or abbesses and nuns). Tithe was a tax paid by free peasants, consisted of one-tenth of the harvest. Scriptorium was a place where codices were copied by hand and illustrated. Emirate was a politically and religiously dependent province of the Umayyad Caliphate, with its capital in Córdoba. Spanish March was a borderline province south of the Pyrenees. Muladis were former Christians converted to Islam. Razzias were punitive expeditions against Christians. Taifas were small independent kingdoms. Hachib was a prime minister who controlled administration and finance. Viziers were advisors in a council. Jassa (aristocracy) was a small group of Arabs with positions and properties. Amma (mass of the population) were peasants and city dwellers, consisted of Mozarabs (maintained Christian religion) and Muladis (adopted Muslim religion). Presura was a widely used system and land was occupied by free peasants as owners. Municipal Charters were written documents establishing privileges granted to settlers by the king or count.
711: A group of Arabs and Berbers, led by Tariq, defeated the Visigothic King Rodrigo at the Battle of Guadalete. Muslims occupied the Iberian Peninsula.
722: Muslims were defeated by Asturians at the Battle of Covadonga. Asturians and some Visigoths, led by Pelayo, defeated Muslims. With the capital in Oviedo, Alfonso III extended from Galicia and the source of the Ebro to the Duero.
732: They were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Poitiers. Muslim expansion halted.
756: Umayyad prince Abderramán I escaped from the Abbasids of Baghdad and proclaimed himself a politically (not religiously) independent emir.
929: Abderramán III proclaimed himself caliph. It started a political and cultural splendor, and Córdoba became the most important city in the West.
1031: The Caliphate disappeared, and Al-Andalus was divided into Taifas (small independent kingdoms).
914: The Kingdom of León was created when Ordoño II moved the capital. It had to deal with Muslim attacks and the independence of the County of Castilla.
1035: Fernando inherited and turned Castilla into a kingdom.
1037: He defeated Bermudo III of León, forming the kingdom of Castilla and León.
778: Basques managed to free themselves from Muslims and Franks.