Feudalism and the Crusades: Medieval Europe’s Transformation

Posted on Jan 10, 2025 in History

Feudalism: The Foundation of Medieval European Society

The Rise of Feudalism

Feudalism was a political, economic, and social system that emerged after the decline of Charlemagne’s empire. Two primary factors contributed to its rise:

  • A) The weakness of Charlemagne’s successors.
  • B) Invasions that ravaged Europe.

As a result, people left urban areas and sought protection in rural regions, often from powerful landowners who became known as feudal lords. These lords granted land, called fiefs, in exchange for service and loyalty.

Economic and Social Changes

  • The economy suffered, and trade declined significantly.
  • Currency usage diminished, and bartering became more common.
  • Agriculture became the primary economic activity.
  • Some classical Greek and Roman traditions were lost.

The Feudal Hierarchy

Feudalism was characterized by oaths of loyalty between lords and vassals. Land was granted in return for services. The lord owned the land and provided it for the vassal’s benefit. The vassal was under the lord’s supervision.

The king, at the top of the hierarchy, granted land to nobles, who in turn could grant portions of their land to their own vassals. The king was the ultimate lord and vassal to none.

At the bottom of the social scale were:

  1. Villains: Free peasants.
  2. Serfs: Unfree peasants who could not make decisions without the lord’s consent.

An act of homage was a ceremony where a fief was granted, and a vassal swore allegiance to the lord.

Consequences of Feudalism

  • Centralized power and the king’s authority diminished.
  • Land ownership became fragmented and subdivided.
  • A strict hierarchical system emerged.

Duties in the Feudal System

Duties of the Vassal

  1. Aid:
    • Military: The vassal had to provide military service when the lord was in danger.
    • Economic: The vassal had to provide financial assistance when needed.
  2. Counsel: Vassals had to attend the lord’s court and offer legal advice.

Duties of the Lord

  • Protect their vassals.
  • Grant benefits, such as land (fiefs).

Felony: The failure of a vassal or lord to fulfill their duties.

The Structure of a Fief

A fief was typically divided into three sectors:

  1. Demesne: The best land, reserved for the lord. Serfs and villains worked these lands.
  2. Mansus: Land granted to serfs for their sustenance.
  3. Common Lands: Areas used by everyone, often those unable to work.

Taxes in the Feudal System

Serfs were subject to various taxes:

  • Corvée: Labor tax.
  • Tallage: A general tax paid by all.
  • Banalities: Tax for using the lord’s facilities (e.g., mill, oven).

The Crusades: Religious Wars and Their Impact

In 1095, Pope Urban II called upon the great lords of Europe at the Council of Clermont to liberate the Holy Sepulchre from the infidels. This call to arms marked the beginning of the Crusades, a series of religious and political movements.

The First Crusades

Crusaders wore a cross on their shoulders, facing forward when advancing and backward when retreating. Eight Crusades were launched, but none fully achieved their objectives.

Peter the Hermit led a People’s Crusade, composed mainly of the poor, to the Holy Land. The Third Crusade had some limited success but faced challenges, particularly from the Seljuk Turks.

Consequences of the Crusades

  • The Crusades failed to achieve their primary goal but fostered new trade connections.
  • The power of feudal lords weakened as their lands were neglected during their absence.
  • Kings gained more power by selling land concessions to the burgeoning merchant class (burghers).
  • Trade between East and West increased.
  • Italian city-states gained dominance in Mediterranean trade.
  • Cities experienced a revival.

Cultural Centers of the Late Middle Ages

Universities

Universities emerged in the 12th century as groups of teachers and students governed by a rector. Philosophy, based on language, was a central discipline.

Royal Courts

Two notable royal courts fostered intellectual and cultural development:

  • Alfonso X of Castile: Established a school in Toledo where Christian, Jewish, and Muslim scholars collaborated. This school, led by Raymond, focused on translating ancient texts and producing important works like “The Seven-Part Code,” “Great and General [History],” “General Chronicle,” and “Book of Knowledge.”
  • Frederick II: Founded the University of Naples.