Formal Science and Empirical Science
Formal Sciences
Formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, focus on beings of reason that exist conceptually in the mind. Mathematics deals with numbers, geometrical figures, and logical forms of thought. Statements in formal sciences are a priori analytic propositions where the predicate is contained within the subject. These propositions are derived from reason, not experience, making them universally and necessarily true. Deduction is the method used to construct and test formal statements. Axioms, simple and self-evident truths, are used to derive more complex truths called theorems. Truth within a formal system is determined by internal consistency and lack of contradiction.
Empirical Sciences
Empirical sciences, also known as factual sciences, study facts that exist outside the human mind. They are divided into natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, etc.) and social sciences (sociology, anthropology, history, etc.). Empirical statements are a posteriori synthetic propositions. The predicate is not contained within the subject and is discovered through experience, not analysis. These propositions are not necessarily universal or necessary.
Demarcation
Verifiability
Neo-positivists proposed verifiability as a criterion for demarcating scientific claims. A statement is scientific if it can be empirically confirmed.
Falsifiability
Karl Popper countered with falsifiability as the demarcation criterion. A statement is scientific if it can be empirically refuted. Popper argued that universal statements cannot be verified by particular facts. However, a single contradictory fact can falsify a statement.
Scientific Theories
Science comprises theories that explain aspects of reality. A theory is a logically organized set of problems, terms, hypotheses, laws, and models.
- Problems: Facts requiring explanation within a theory.
- Terms: Precisely defined terms used in scientific statements.
- Hypotheses: Testable provisional statements explaining a problem.
- Laws: Statements expressing connections between phenomena, either empirically derived or logically deduced.
- Models: Physical or theoretical representations that aid understanding and extension of a theory.
Types of Explanation
- Deductive-Nomological: Explaining a particular phenomenon (explanandum) using a general law (explanans).
- Inductive-Statistical: Explaining a phenomenon using a probable law derived from data.
- Teleological: Explaining a fact based on its final cause or purpose.
- Deterministic/Causal: Explaining a fact based on its efficient cause or preceding event.
The Experimental Method
- Observe and identify relevant properties of the phenomenon.
- Formulate a hypothesis and its implications.
- Test the hypothesis through controlled experiments.
- If confirmed, the hypothesis becomes law; otherwise, it’s rejected.
- Utilize mathematical language when possible.
History of Science
Progress of Science
Neo-positivists viewed scientific progress as continuous and cumulative. Popper argued for indefinite progress through conjecture and refutation. Kuhn emphasized paradigm shifts and scientific revolutions. Lakatos focused on research programs with a hard core and protective belt. Feyerabend challenged the notion of a unified scientific method, advocating for an anarchistic approach.
Criticism of Science
- Epistemological: Questions the rationality and unity of the scientific method.
- Ideological: Critiques the influence of state and social groups on scientific research.
- Economic: Highlights the cost-benefit ratio of scientific research.
- Ecological: Addresses the environmental impact of scientific experiments and technology.
- Moral: Examines ethical limits in scientific research, particularly in biology and medicine.