Forms of Government in Ancient Rome: Monarchy, Republic, and Empire
Forms of Government in Ancient Rome
1. Monarchy
In its early history, Rome, like Greece, was a monarchy. Tradition holds that between 753 and 509 BC, Rome had seven kings, from Romulus to Tarquinius Superbus.
The king (rex) held social, political, and military authority. Like a god, the king rode through the city in a chariot while others walked, carrying a scepter and gold crown, symbolizing his ownership of the city. He was accompanied by lictors carrying fasces, a symbol of royal power, used to clear the way and administer punishments.
The Senate, an assembly of elders, held a secondary role. It was purely advisory: the king sought its opinion but was not obligated to follow it.
2. Republic
In 509 BC, King Tarquin the Proud was expelled, ending the monarchy. From 509 to 27 BC, Rome was a Republic, where citizens directly exercised power.
The Roman Republic’s constitution balanced three interconnected bodies: Magistrates, Assemblies, and the Senate. The phrase Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) reflects this bond.
The Senate held advisory power. Initially composed of patricians, it later included plebeians. Its powers included:
- Overseeing finances.
- Judging major crimes within Italy, such as treason, perjury, poisoning, and murder.
- Managing foreign relations.
The Assemblies represented the legislative branch. Free, adult male citizens, divided into classes based on wealth, comprised the Assemblies. However, the wealthy dominated: voting began with the wealthiest class, and counting stopped once a majority was reached, effectively excluding the poor.
The people, gathered in Assemblies, elected magistrates, held the power of capital punishment, decided on war and peace, and ratified treaties.
Magistrates held temporary executive power. Elected annually (except for Censors, who served five-year terms), they served without pay. Eligibility required citizenship, a clean legal record, and completed military service. A political career (cursus honorum) progressed through various magistracies, from Quaestor to Consul.
- Quaestors: Initially two, their number increased to forty under Julius Caesar. They managed the state treasury (urban quaestors) and provincial finances and army pay (provincial quaestors).
- Aediles: Two plebeians and two patricians (though plebeians later held patrician aedileships). They managed city administration (police, markets, public games, etc.).
- Praetors: Initially one, responsible for administering justice. From 241 BC, two praetors were elected: the urbanus for disputes between citizens and the peregrinus for cases involving foreigners. Their numbers increased to sixteen under Julius Caesar due to expanding provinces.
- Consuls: The most powerful magistrates. They held civil and military authority, commanded the army, convened and presided over the Senate and Assemblies, and executed senatorial and popular decisions. After their term, they governed provinces as proconsuls.
- Censors: Initially patricians, from 367 BC, one could be a plebeian. Elected every five years from former consuls, they served up to eighteen months. Their duties included conducting the census, upholding public morality, and revising the Senate’s membership.
Magistrates outside the cursus honorum included:
- Tribunes of the Plebs: Defended plebeians against magistrate abuses using the ius intercessionis (veto power).
- Dictator: Appointed in emergencies with full power for six months. In the late Republic, dictatorships faded, with consuls assuming supreme power.
3. Empire
The Roman Empire began with Octavian in 27 BC. Imperium, signifying supreme command, was gradually concentrated in Octavian’s hands.
Many magistracies remained but lost significance. Dictatorship and censorship disappeared early on. Others became mere titles. The Emperor held supreme civil, military, and religious authority.
Emperors adopted various titles:
- Princeps, “first among equals,” signified political power.
- Imperator, “commander,” denoted military authority.
- Augustus, “venerable,” reflected the emperor’s superior status.