Franco Regime Opposition: From Exile to Internal Resistance
Opposition to the Franco Regime
Exile and Early Resistance
Initially, opposition to the Franco regime was spearheaded by exiles following the Civil War. The Republican government persisted in exile, albeit symbolically, from 1945 to 1977. Various groups from the Popular Front continued their activities abroad, forging partnerships, attempting to reorganize, and seeking support to overthrow the dictatorship.
Internal Opposition and Repression
Internal opposition proved more challenging, especially in the immediate aftermath of the war. The Law of Political Responsibilities (1939) and the Suppression of Communism and Masonry Act (1940) served as instruments for the regime to persecute political opponents. Civilian and military trials resulted in death sentences, imprisonment, and exile. Between 1944 and 1948, coinciding with the end of World War II and international isolation, the “maquis” (guerrillas), primarily driven by the Communist Party of Spain (PCE), engaged in armed resistance. Their objective was to create conditions for foreign intervention to end the dictatorship.
The Rise of Social and Political Protests
In the 1950s, the first significant social and political protests and strikes began to emerge. The virtual disappearance of the General Union of Workers (UGT) and the National Confederation of Labor (CNT) paved the way for the emergence of a new form of unionism after 1964: the Workers’ Commissions (CCOO). This organization combined legal action, participating in Franco’s union structure, with illegal activities, such as calling for strikes. Alongside the labor movement, various student organizations and social movements gained momentum. The 1960s witnessed the rise of underground political groups and an increase in labor unrest and street demonstrations against the regime. The regime responded by establishing the Public Order Court in 1963. A pivotal event during this period was the decision made in Munich by representatives of the moderate opposition to Franco, both in exile and within Spain, which elicited a strong reaction from the regime.
The “Grays” and the Resurgence of Political Parties
The “Grays” in action
Old political parties were revived, and new groups emerged on both the left and right. The PCE emerged as the most organized force within Spain due to its political action within mass organizations, such as unions and associations. In 1974, anticipating the end of the dictatorship, the PCE promoted the Democratic Junta, which included diverse organizations demanding the formation of a provisional government and the adoption of a democratic system. The Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), meanwhile, experienced internal tension between its leadership in exile and young leaders within Spain who would eventually gain control at the party’s congress in Suresnes, led by Felipe González. In 1975, the Democratic Convergence Platform was formed, with objectives similar to those of the Junta.
Nationalism and Armed Struggle
In the final years of Franco’s rule, nationalist parties reemerged, particularly in Catalonia and the Basque Country. In the Basque Country, alongside the traditional hegemony of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), the emergence of ETA in 1959, with an ideology that sought to merge nationalism and Marxism after 1968, led to the adoption of armed struggle. Other left-wing groups also engaged in terrorism, a phenomenon that often resulted in indiscriminate repression and persisted during the democratic transition.