Francoist Spain: Ideology and Social Supports
Item 21: The Franco Regime (1939-1975)
Basics, Ideological and Social Supports
1. Introduction
On April 1, 1939, the Spanish Civil War ended with the establishment of a military dictatorship led by Francisco Franco. Republicans faced exile, imprisonment in concentration camps, or deconcentration. The Franco regime lasted until 1975, undergoing significant evolution throughout its long tenure. Franco adapted his policies to both domestic and international circumstances, navigating the aftermath of World War II and the emergence of the Cold War. Initially condemned by the UN for supporting Axis powers, Spain later became an ally of the USA and was admitted to the UN in 1953.
During Franco’s rule, several distinct stages can be identified:
- Blue Stage or Fascist (1939-1943)
- Transition (1944-1959): Characterized by stagnation in major transformations.
- Period of Great Economic and Social Development (1959-1970)
- Stage of Franco Regime’s Political Crisis (1971-1975)
2. Development (Francoist Ideology and Social Supports)
Franco’s rule can be broadly divided into two phases. The first lasted until around 1959, when a series of changes ushered in a new era of “development” and an attempt to institutionalize the regime. Franco, who seized power in September 1936, never relinquished it.
His core ideas were clear:
- Centralized control and public order
- National Catholicism
- Eradication of liberalism, liberal democracy, communism, Freemasonry, and political parties
- Suppression of separatism (nationalism)
- Restoration of the Church’s power
His policy: action-oriented, addressing the needs of the moment. His populism relied on raising the general standard of living. Although the regime evolved, it remained true to core political principles:
- Opposition to liberal parliamentary democracy, including freedom of expression, assembly, and association. This involved banning parties and unions and implementing strict censorship.
- Identification of two main enemies: communism and separatism.
- Implementation of laws to maintain control and dismantle republican institutions (constitution, civil liberties, political parties, trade unions, autonomous status).
All power was vested in Franco as head of state, army chief, and government. He held the title of Caudillo and claimed to answer only “before God and before history,” granting him absolute authority. The Falange Española Tradicionalista de las JONS, inspired by Italian and German fascism, served as the single party. Eventually renamed the National Movement, it incorporated youth organizations like the Youth Front (with compulsory membership) and student organizations like the SEU (Sindicato Español Universitario). Women’s organizations, such as the Female Section, also had mandatory membership, including social service equivalent to men’s military service.
The Francoist state was a hybrid of military dictatorship, fascist state, and absolute monarchy without a king. Franco’s power was not as absolute as in Italy or Germany, as he had to share it with the Church, businesses, and especially the army. A crisis within the Falange led to the replacement of more hardline Falangists with figures like Carrero Blanco, who became a powerful figure in the regime.
Various laws were enacted throughout Franco’s rule. Early laws focused on suppressing the defeated Republicans, including:
- Political Responsibility Law (1939): Political repression targeting those defeated in the war.
- Suppression Act of Freemasonry and Communism (1940)
- State Security Law (1941): Reinforced earlier repressive measures.
- Press Law (1939): Imposed strict censorship and lasted until 1966.
Fundamental laws of the regime included:
- Labor Law (1938)
- Jurisdiction of the Spanish (1945): A declaration of rights and obligations that included “freedom of expression” as long as it did not undermine the regime.
- The National Unionist (1940): A vertical single trade union comprising entrepreneurs, technicians, and workers, controlled by a secretary general with ministerial status. Membership was compulsory.
- Law Courts Building (1942): The Cortes, with appointed rather than elected members, served as a pseudo-legislative body. Its purpose was to provide a facade of representation for the regime, but it lacked real power.
- University Management Act: Placed universities under the control of the Falange and the Church, with mandatory religious studies and FEN (Espíritu Nacional Training). The CSIC (Higher Council for Scientific Research) was also created.
Franco maintained tight control over the territory, with each province headed by a civil governor who was also the Provincial Chief of the Movement and a military governor.
In 1945, the regime underwent an image change (though not a real change in power) as the Axis powers lost World War II. Franco sought closer ties with the Allies, introducing the concept of “organic democracy” and extending limited political participation through family, municipality, and the trade union. He appointed Catholic Action ministers to align with Christian Democratic parties gaining power in Europe.
New laws were introduced, such as the Local Government Act, which allowed for the election of council members through a corporatist system. The Primary Education Act, based on Catholic teachings, was also implemented. The fascist salute was abolished, and a partial amnesty for political prisoners was granted.
The Referendum Act (1945) introduced nationwide consultations on key legislation, recognizing universal suffrage for the first time in Spain. The Law of Succession to the Head of State (1947), approved in a referendum, declared Spain a kingdom with Franco as head of state until his death. He would propose his successor to the Cortes, though it was clear he would not be replaced. The Regency Council and Council of the Kingdom were also created.
Spain’s international isolation began to end with its admission to the UN and UNESCO. The Concordat with the Holy See was signed, ensuring the Vatican’s continued support for Franco. Defense agreements with the United States led to the establishment of American bases in Spain.
Between 1959 and 1975, Spain experienced changes, but the Franco regime struggled to keep pace with the evolving population. Open opposition to Franco began to organize and unite. Politically, this period saw the institutionalization of the regime and efforts to ensure its continuity. The Law of the National Movement Principles reaffirmed the unity of Spain, Catholicism, family, municipality, and the trade union.
Open ministers were introduced, leading to a degree of liberalization:
- Solís Ruiz attempted to create political associations, but his efforts were blocked.
- Union reforms initiated by Solís Ruiz achieved limited success, but opposition leaders were imprisoned.
- Fraga’s Press Law abolished prior censorship and led to an increase in magazines, books, and newspapers.
Institutionalization culminated in the Organic Law of the State of 1966, approved in a referendum. This law unified previous legislation, including the Law of Succession, the Organic Law of the Movement, and the Trade Union Act. The positions of head of state and government were separated. Ultimately, the hardline faction within the regime prevailed, and Carrero Blanco was appointed vice president of the government in 1967.
Social conflict increased, with strikes and protests by workers and students, and the emergence of ETA’s terrorist attacks. In 1969, Juan Carlos de Borbón was designated as Franco’s successor. From 1969 to 1975, divisions within the Franco regime deepened, with some advocating for continuity (Carrero Blanco) and others seeking a gradual transition to a political alternative. Political associations slowly emerged, while the far-right bunker (Fuerza Nueva) violently attacked the opposition.
Throughout his rule, Franco relied on the support of the “Families of the Regime,” including the Falange, Carlists, and Catholic monarchists. His regime was never based on a single political group or ideology. Power was manifested in three spheres: civil, military, and ecclesiastical, with these authorities represented in successive governments. The army, the Church, and Opus Dei formed key pillars of support. The social base of the regime consisted of the bourgeoisie and the agricultural proletariat.
The Vatican recognized Franco’s regime, declaring the coup a “National Crusade.” The Church became a powerful force, enjoying privileges and imposing Catholic unity while excluding other religions. Catholicism served as the main ideological justification for the regime and its education system.
The Falange, initially a major pillar of support, gradually lost power. Its early fascist ideals were replaced by blind loyalty to Franco. Its members became part of a bureaucratic apparatus, retaining some power in the National Council of the Movement and the Trade Unions.
The Army remained the backbone of the regime, never challenging Franco’s authority. Its loyalty was rewarded with appointments to high positions in the civil administration, trade unions, and public and private enterprises. However, tensions arose with some generals who favored a return to monarchy.
Franco appears to have never seriously considered restoring the monarchy and had difficult relations with Don Juan de Borbón, the son and heir of Alfonso XIII. He rejected the idea of a temporary military dictatorship aimed at restoring the monarchy or the Republic, preferring to maintain his own rule indefinitely.
3. Conclusion
The final crisis of the Franco regime occurred in 1973 with the appointment of Carrero Blanco as the first head of government with prime ministerial powers. This signaled an intention to ensure continuity after Franco’s death. However, Carrero Blanco was assassinated by ETA in December 1973.
Carrero Blanco’s successor, Arias Navarro (1974), promised reforms but failed to deliver, further eroding the regime’s credibility. Some reformist ministers resigned, frustrated by their inability to implement meaningful changes. Street protests intensified, with demonstrations, strikes, and attacks. The government responded with mass arrests, anti-terrorism laws, and the closure of magazines. The far right, opposed to any change, engaged in violent actions against the left.
In 1974, a seriously ill Franco transferred power to Juan Carlos on an interim basis, but without any real authority. A new Anti-Terrorism Act introduced the death penalty for terrorists. Members of ETA and FRAP were convicted and executed despite international calls for clemency in 1975. These events sparked international outcry against Franco and the situation in Spain.
The conflict in the Sahara, a Spanish colony, also emerged during this period. Algeria, Mauritania, and especially Morocco sought control of this phosphate-rich desert territory. The Polisario Front, advocating for Sahrawi independence, also emerged. Spain favored decolonization and supported the Sahrawi cause. Morocco, under Hassan II, organized the Green March, a peaceful invasion of the territory. Spain ultimately ceded control of the Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania, leading to a protracted war between the Sahrawi people and Morocco.
On November 20, 1975, Franco died, marking the beginning of Spain’s transition to democracy.