Francoist Spain: Political, Social, and Economic Overview
Creation of the Francoist State
The Francoist state, a political and social regime, emerged during the Spanish Civil War. This regime relied on a single-party political ideology, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), founded by the rebels. The sole command rested with Francisco Franco, who concentrated power and legislative initiative until his death.
A series of laws were promulgated, including the Principles of the National Movement Act. The regime remained faithful to its original principles and maintained its character as a personal dictatorship. Its ideology aligned with the conservative right and authoritarianism of interwar Europe, surviving until the 1970s.
Key features of Francoism:
- Rejection of bourgeois society and nostalgia for a triumphant past.
- Disdain for liberal political institutions and parliamentary democracy, associating them with Freemasonry.
- Repression of Marxism and communism.
- Exacerbated nationalism and xenophobia combined with conservative Catholicism, which became the official state religion.
- Suppression of regional languages like Catalan, Basque, and Galician.
Political and External Environment
Francoism can be divided into two periods: early Francoism (until 1959) and late Francoism (1959-1975).
Early Francoism (1936-1959):
- 1938-1942: Ramón Serrano Suñer, a prominent figure, shaped the state with fascist elements. The FET y de las JONS did not achieve mass appeal, and Falangist ministers and military figures dominated. Catholics also participated, albeit as a minority.
- World War II: Spain maintained a non-belligerent stance, acting as a trader and intermediary. The 1940 meeting between Franco and Adolf Hitler in Hendaye is notable.
- Post-1942: Suñer lost influence, and fascism’s impact waned. Catholic influence in politics increased.
- National-Catholicism: Luis Carrero Blanco emerged as a key figure, becoming Franco’s close advisor. The Falange’s influence diminished, and the Roman salute was abolished. New legislation, such as the Law of Jurisdictions (1945) and the National Referendum Law (1945), was enacted.
- International Isolation: Spain faced ostracism, with the exodus of US ambassadors. However, this led to a rapprochement with the US and economic aid.
- Economic Policy: Early Francoism featured rigid state intervention and autarky, aiming for self-sufficiency. This resulted in social protests and strikes.
Consolidation of the Regime (1951-1959):
- The regime strengthened, moving away from autarky. The Stabilization Plan was implemented, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited Spain in 1959, symbolizing a closer relationship between the two countries.
- Catholic influence grew, represented by members of the Asociación Católica Nacional de Propagandistas (ACNP), and Carrero Blanco solidified his position as Franco’s right hand.
- Policy changes included the appointment of Catholic ministers and technocrats, led by Laureano López Rodó.
- Economic liberalization and international openness increased, particularly with the US, providing economic and military security for the regime.
- Spain joined the UN in 1955.
Late Francoism (1959-1975):
- Economic Growth and Opposition: Economic growth transformed Spanish society and fueled opposition to the regime. Institutional inertia and repression persisted.
- Organic Law of the State (1967): This law outlined Spain’s future after Franco’s death.
- Manuel Fraga Iribarne: He promoted the Press and Print Law in 1969.
- Juan Carlos de Borbón: He was appointed as Franco’s successor.
- Hardening of the Regime: From the late 1960s, Franco’s supporters, known as the “bunker”, pushed for a harder line against perceived liberalization.
- Matesa Scandal (1969): This scandal triggered a government crisis and led to Carrero Blanco’s appointment as Vice President.
- Energy Crisis and Carrero Blanco’s Assassination (1973): Spain faced an energy crisis, followed by the assassination of Carrero Blanco. Franco appointed Carlos Arias Navarro as President, leading to the expulsion of reformists and technocrats.
- Franco’s Death (1975): Franco died in 1975, leaving a decaying state and a path towards political transition.
Opposition to the Regime
Resistance to Franco’s rule was initially fragmented.
- Republican Opposition in Exile: They sought to create a common front through the National Alliance of Democratic Forces but excluded communists during the Cold War.
- Bourbon Monarchy: They advocated for a transition to a constitutional monarchy and pressured Franco for an agreement.
- Maquis: Communist and anarchist groups engaged in guerrilla warfare against the regime.
- Reconstruction of Opposition (1950s): Opposition within Spain began to rebuild, characterized by uncoordinated social protests. Many figures were integrated into the system.
- Increased Opposition (1960s): New forms of struggle emerged, including labor protests led by Workers’ Commissions, which arose within the Francoist vertical unions. Other unions like the Unión Sindical Obrera (USO) and the Eusko Langileen Alkartasuna-Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos (ELA-STV) also played a role. The Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) regained influence later. Student protests, neighborhood movements, and citizen movements in urban areas also contributed to the opposition.
- Political Parties: The Communist Party of Spain (PCE) and other clandestine parties actively opposed the regime during the 1960s.
Economic Change
Autarky and Isolation (Post-Civil War):
- Franco adopted an autarkic economic policy, isolating Spain from the international market. This resulted in economic stagnation, shortages, famine, and rationing.
- The causes of autarky included material and human capital losses from the Civil War, international obstacles, and the regime’s economic nationalism.
- Autarky benefited certain elites, while corruption and the black market thrived.
- Agriculture suffered a deep crisis, with reduced harvests and rationing.
- The Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI) was created to promote industrial development, but the sector stagnated.
- Wages fell, prices rose, and public debt increased.
Shift from Autarky (1951-1959):
- Economic policies shifted towards abandoning autarky. Reforms led to economic growth, agricultural recovery, and industrial development.
- Limitations persisted, including state-supported inflation and monopolies in public enterprises.
Stabilization Plan (1959):
- Measures were implemented to control inflation, reduce credit, and eliminate regulations and subsidies.
- State revenues and expenditures were adjusted, and imports were restricted by devaluing the peseta.
Economic Growth (1959-1975):
- A decade of economic growth began, driven by Development Plans and indicative planning.
- The economy focused on industry and services, with tourism, remittances from emigrants, and foreign capital inflows offsetting the trade deficit.
- Increased purchasing power and domestic demand fueled further growth.