Franco’s Dictatorship: Guerrilla Warfare, Exile, and International Relations
The Post-Civil War Period (1939-1945)
The Guerrilla
The political organizations that formed the Popular Front split, faced exile, and confronted each other. Aware of the magnitude of the defeat, the Socialists pinned their hopes on regime change through the intervention of the democratic powers. They sought to encourage and promote agreements with anti-Franco democratic organizations, which vetoed the presence of the PCE (Communist Party of Spain). As it had no influence on governments, the PCE held that the Spanish people had the leading role in the demolition of the dictatorship. During the 1940s, they tried to keep the military conflict open with guerrilla tactics.
The maquis or guerrilla was formed from two different groups:
- The first featured fugitives hiding in the mountains since the end of the Civil War, and activists who joined them when their clandestine activities were discovered.
- The second group of fighters were volunteers who, after the defeat of the Nazis in France, returned to Spain to conclude the struggle against fascism.
Exile
Republican Exile was composed of Spanish citizens who, during the Spanish Civil War and the immediate postwar period, were forced to leave their homeland and move to other countries for ideological reasons or for fear of retaliation by the winning side. They remained abroad until the evolution of the internal circumstances of the country allowed them to return gradually, although there were many who integrated into the societies that gave them shelter.
Much of the first wave of refugees initially had to face harsh living conditions. Many Communists emigrated to the USSR and fought against the Nazis in the Red Army.
Many of the people who made their way from exile were veterans, politicians, or officials directly involved with the Republican cause, but among them were also relatives and thousands of civilians. Over the years, internal political developments in Spain and the continuing process of reconciliation, culminating with the period of the Spanish Transition and the establishment of democracy, gradually allowed the return of exiles. There were many who, due to their degree of integration, decided to stay in the country that gave them refuge and where they met with other Spanish settlers later, who arrived as migrants for economic reasons or as part of a new wave of exile.
Influence of the International Situation
The Alliance with the Fascist Powers During the Second World War
During the early years of the regime until the end of World War II, Franco openly expressed his sympathy for the Axis powers. On April 7, just after the war, Franco announced Spain’s adherence to the Anti-Comintern Pact. At the outbreak of World War II, Franco was under pressure from Hitler and Mussolini in return for the support they had provided during the Civil War.
a) The Meeting Between Hitler and Franco in Hendaye
Hitler sought the support of Franco in Operation Felix, in exchange for military supplies ordered by Franco, food and other economic resources, and Hitler’s support to extend Spain’s possessions in Africa. Franco refused. The result was that Spain did not officially enter the war, although it facilitated oil refueling for German warships and submarines in utmost secrecy.
b) The Meeting Between Franco and Mussolini in Bordiguera
The Italians tried again to convince Franco, but Spain remained formally outside the War. Britain and especially the U.S. pressured Franco by suspending oil shipments to Spain. Since the fall of 1942, World War II took a turn for the worse for the Axis powers. The Allies had already been outlined as victors. So, Spain distanced itself from the German cause and reached out to the Allies. General Gómez Jordana, a defender of neutrality, began to cool relations with Germany. His measures were:
- He withdrew the Blue Division from the Russian front.
- He handed over Italian vessels that had taken refuge in Spain after the fall of Mussolini.
The International Isolation
After the Second World War, the Franco dictatorship was isolated internationally.
- At the Potsdam Conference, it was agreed to veto Spain’s membership in the UN.
- In January 1946, France closed its border with Spain, which led to protests from the Spanish government.
- In February 1946, the UN condemned the Spanish political system and encouraged all countries to withdraw their ambassadors and ministers from Spain. Only Portugal and Argentina supported Franco.
This international condemnation followed years of economic and political isolation, although the U.S. was trying not to break completely with a regime that could be its ally in the Cold War that had just begun. However, Spain did not receive any help from the Marshall Plan, nor was it admitted to NATO. That is why Spain suffered the economic blockade.
The End of Isolation: The Agreement with the U.S.
In the 1950s, the tension between the U.S. and the USSR, and the development of the Cold War, made the American government change its attitude toward Franco. The UN, at the request of the U.S., announced the end of the diplomatic isolation of Spain. In 1953, Spain signed bilateral agreements with the U.S., which allowed the installation of U.S. military bases in Spain. In return, Spain received military supplies and financial support from the U.S. This agreement allowed the consolidation of the Franco regime. Spain was admitted to the UN in 1955. But it was not admitted to NATO, as punishment for not having a democratic regime. In 1956, Spain recognized the independence of Morocco and initiated the process of decolonization of the Protectorate, following the recommendations of the UN.