Franco’s Final Years: Crisis and Opposition in Spain
Opposition and Crisis in Late Francoism
Growing Opposition Movements
The seventies witnessed the end of the Franco regime, coinciding with the death of Francisco Franco and a general crisis. The reorganization of the opposition, fueled by economic and social changes in the sixties, led to increased resistance. More educated individuals often opposed the regime. In 1956, the Communist Party (PCE) launched a national reconciliation policy aimed at an alliance of all parties opposing the dictatorship, regardless of their political leaning (right or left). In 1962, several of these parties met in Munich. Subsequently, associations such as the Democratic Board (Junta Democrática) and the Democratic Convergence Platform (Plataforma de Convergencia Democrática) were created, organizing the opposition.
Additionally, new forms of opposition emerged:
- A widespread neighborhood movement demanded improved local services.
- The student movement gained strength in universities.
- Intellectuals and artists began to express their rejection of the Franco regime publicly.
- The trade union movement developed, led by the newly created Workers’ Commissions (CCOO).
Rise of Militant Groups
Furthermore, a terrorist opposition developed, characterized by violent methods. Three main groups emerged: GRAPO, FRAP, and ETA. ETA carried out its first fatal attacks in the sixties.
The 1973 Economic Crisis
The regime’s final crisis began in 1973 with the global economic downturn, known as the oil crisis, which severely impacted Spain. Key manifestations included:
- High inflation
- Rising oil prices
- Business closures
- Increased unemployment
Spain also experienced a drop in tourism revenue and remittances from migrants. As migrants lost jobs in other countries, they returned to Spain, further increasing unemployment. The economic crisis intensified social unrest. Strikes, led by clandestine trade unions, increased sharply despite being prohibited.
Political Instability and Repression
The economic crisis and growing opposition coincided with the political crisis of the Franco regime. Franco’s health was deteriorating rapidly. Anticipating his death, the regime planned for succession. In 1969, Franco appointed Juan Carlos de Borbón as his successor as Head of State. Shortly after, he appointed Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco as Prime Minister. However, in 1973, ETA assassinated Carrero Blanco, leaving the Franco regime without clear leadership.
Pressed by these problems, the regime responded with repression:
- States of emergency were declared on several occasions.
- Arrests and death sentences increased, affecting members of ETA and FRAP.
The Spanish Sahara Conflict
Similarly, conflict arose over the Spanish Sahara. This colony sought independence, and Morocco took advantage of the regime’s weakness to annex it through the so-called Green March.
Death of Franco
Amidst this confusing situation, Franco died on November 20, 1975.
Spain After Franco: Progress and Inequality
Economic Transformation and Its Limits
Franco’s regime was a dictatorship throughout its existence. Upon Franco’s death, economic growth had transformed Spanish society. The regime could boast of having transformed Spain into the world’s tenth industrial power. However, although Spain was an industrialized country in the seventies, significant inequalities remained. Alongside industrial and tourist areas with better living standards, other regions still relied heavily on agriculture and remained stuck in underdevelopment. These regions experienced population loss as people migrated to the cities.
Social and Cultural Disparities
Although the overall standard of living had increased, poor public services (city planning, health, social insurance, etc.) left many workers unprotected. The low cultural level of the majority of the population contrasted sharply with the high level of education achieved by a minority. This cultural lag hindered economic growth, necessitating the import of foreign technical innovations.
Key Terms and Organizations
- State of Emergency
- A government order suspending the limited freedoms granted to the population under the dictatorship.
- 1962 Munich Meeting
- A meeting of various anti-Franco opposition groups.
- FRAP (Frente Revolucionario Antifascista y Patriota)
- Anti-fascist and Patriotic Revolutionary Front.
- GRAPO (Grupos de Resistencia Antifascista Primero de Octubre)
- First of October Anti-fascist Resistance Groups (originated from a split within the Communist Party of Spain (Marxist–Leninist)).
- ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna)
- “Basque Homeland and Liberty”.
Note: It is claimed Franco secretly signed a protocol in which he undertook to enter the war at an indefinite time.