Franco’s Spain: Dictatorship, Opposition, and Transition

Posted on Nov 25, 2024 in History

Introduction

Franco ruled Spain as a dictator from the end of the civil war until his death in 1975. During the 1960s, Spain experienced economic development, attempting to adapt to global changes while maintaining its authoritarian system. However, Franco’s regime and his health weakened concurrently.

Political System Foundations

The dictatorship was based on the prohibition of political parties and the repression of opposition. The Movimiento Nacional was the sole political party. Several groups attempted to influence Franco’s decisions:

  • Franco’s Falange: They controlled social and economic life, holding significant power in the early years, which diminished after 1945.
  • The Military: They possessed prestige and political influence but were subordinate to Franco.
  • Catholics: Many ministers belonged to religious institutions, but the Second Vatican Council created a rift between the regime and the Church.
  • Monarchists: Franco declined to grant the head of state position to Don Juan de Borbón, limiting monarchists’ power.

Fundamental Laws

Franco opposed a formal constitution, issuing a series of fundamental laws as needed:

  • Labor Charter (1938): Established the state-controlled economy and a single trade union, Sindicato Vertical.
  • Courts Act (1942): Aimed to involve the population in governmental tasks, with most prosecutors being officials or Franco appointees.
  • Charter of the Spanish People (1945): Ostensibly a declaration of rights, it established an authoritarian system with limited freedoms.
  • Referendum Act (1945): Intended to demonstrate universal suffrage, but was often manipulated.
  • Law of Succession as Head of State (1947): Approved through rigging, declaring Spain a unified state and naming Franco head of state with the right to appoint a successor.
  • Act on the Principles of the National Movement (1958): Incorporated the Falange and recognized FET (Traditionalist Spanish Falange) doctrines as the only party.
  • Organic Law of the State (1967): Presented as an opening in a referendum, it maintained the old laws with minor changes. It separated the head of state and prime minister roles, but the government was not fully formed until 1973 with Carrero Blanco.

Despite these laws, democratic principles were not followed. Franco controlled executive and legislative power. Freedom of assembly and expression were suppressed.

Opposition to Franco’s Regime

1940s

  • The Republic in Exile: Republicans outside Spain tried to maintain the 1931 Constitution, hoping for Allied intervention, but their hopes faded when Spain joined the UN in 1955.
  • Anti-Franco Guerrillas: Republican fighters formed guerrilla groups (maquis) in the mountains, increasing their actions after the Nazi defeat in 1945. The PCE renounced armed struggle in 1948.
  • Internal Opposition: Post-war repression destroyed the left’s political organization. The first strikes in 1946 and 1947 were suppressed, but opposition persisted.

1950s

  • Social Protest and University Crisis of 1956: The 1951 Barcelona tram boycott was the first mass protest. University students demanded more freedom, leading to unrest and clashes in Madrid in 1956.
  • Opposition Parties and Unions: The PSOE weakened, while the PCE became the main opposition party. Anarchists and Republicans virtually disappeared. Liberal and monarchist opposition emerged later. The Comisiones Obreras (CCOO) was formed.
  • Nationalism: Nationalism resurfaced in Catalonia and the Basque Country. In 1951-52, a group founded EKIN, which later led to the formation of ETA in 1959. ETA’s first attack occurred in 1968.

1960s

  • Moderate Opposition: The Munich Conference: In 1962, delegates from Spain and exile denounced Franco’s regime as undemocratic. The Communist Party was excluded. The regime reacted violently.
  • Labor Movement and Universities: The PCE faced repression. CCOO mediated between employers and workers. The regime lost control over universities, expelling supportive teachers.
  • National Movements: ETA became a major problem, choosing armed struggle. In 1970, six ETA members were sentenced to death but were later pardoned due to popular mobilization.
  • The Church: Young clergy and progressive Catholics opposed the dictatorship. A prison for priests was opened in Zamora in 1968. Pope Paul VI appointed Cardinal Tarancón to guide the Spanish Church’s policy.

1970-1975

  • Church-Government Confrontation: After Carrero Blanco’s death, Arias Navarro was appointed prime minister in 1974, leading to increased conflict with the Church, especially after the Bishop of Bilbao demanded recognition of Basque language and identity.
  • UMD: The Unión Militar Democrática, composed of 80 officers, aimed for a democratic transition.
  • Alliances Against Dictatorship: As Franco’s health declined, political activity increased. The PCE advocated for a democratic board in 1974. The PSOE, under Felipe González, gained strength and established the Democratic Convergence platform in 1975. After Franco’s death in March 1976, the Coordinación Democrática aimed for political change through social mobilization.