Franco’s Spain: Dictatorship, Transformation, and Opposition (1939-1975)
Franco Dictatorship (1939-1975)
Franco State Creation
The Francoist regime centralized power in Franco, with ideological components such as anti-communism (anti-Reds), anti-parliamentarism (democracy equated with Marxism), nacionalcatolicismo (strong Church presence), and traditionalism (exalting Castilian symbols and history). Francoist propaganda labeled regional autonomy as anti-Spanish. The military regime exhibited several fascist traits.
The dictatorship restored the oligarchy’s hegemony, supported by rural middle classes (especially in the north and Castile) and those benefiting from post-war purges in cities.
Political parties were banned, except for the National Movement (formerly the Falange). Franco sought support from various “families of the scheme”:
- Falangists: Franco became their leader, marginalizing old leaders.
- Military: Subordinated to Franco, never a pressure group.
- Catholics: Especially those from Opus Dei.
- Monarchists: Collaborated with the regime.
- Carlists: Played a minor role.
Foreign Policy and International Situation
Franco consolidated power post-war, reorganizing administration and ruling by decree-law. He maintained a constituent function, legislating through organic laws. Key early laws included: Labor Charter (1938), Law Establishing Courts (1942), Fuero of the Spanish (1945), National Referendum Act (1945), and Law of Succession to the Head of State (1946).
Foreign policy influenced the regime. In 1939, Spain signed the Pact of Steel with Berlin-Rome-Tokyo. The Hendaye meeting (1940) between Franco and Hitler was unsuccessful. Spain sent the Blue Division to aid Germany in 1941. From 1942, Spain shifted towards the Allies.
Post-WWII, Spain faced international isolation and adopted autarchy, relying on US oil and Argentinian wheat. The regime sought to improve its image, increasing Church influence. Relations with monarchists soured after the Manifesto of Lausanne.
The 1940s saw continued repression of republicans, with concentration camps and executions.
From 1948, the Cold War favored Spain. In 1950, the UN lifted its recommendation against ambassadors in Spain, and Spain joined the UN. The agreement with the US (military bases and financial aid) and a new concordat with the Holy See were crucial. Spain recognized Moroccan independence in 1956.
Student protests in 1956 led to a 1957 government reshuffle, favoring Opus Dei ministers and economic reform. The Sixth Act reaffirmed the regime’s principles.
The 1960s saw estrangement from the Church, rising nationalism (ETA founded in 1959), labor disputes, and the “conspiracy of Munich” (1962). The regime attempted to improve its image, appointing younger ministers and passing the Press Law (1966) and Organic Law of the State (1969). Juan Carlos de Borbón was named Franco’s successor in 1969.
The Burgos trial (1970) of ETA members caused international outcry. Corruption scandals, like the Matesa affair, emerged.
University and labor opposition faced repression from the Social Brigade and Courts of Public Order.
Franco’s old age caused a rift between “openers” and hardliners (“bunker”).
After an attack by FRAP, Franco separated the head of state and government, appointing Carrero Blanco as Prime Minister. Carrero Blanco was assassinated by ETA in December 1973. Carlos Arias Navarro formed a new cabinet, initially promising openness but later ordering the execution of Salvador Puig Antich. Tensions with the Church rose, involving figures like Cardinal Enrique y Tarancón and Bishop Añoveros.
In 1975, twelve ETA and FRAP members were sentenced to death; five were executed in September. Franco fell ill on November 13th. Morocco initiated the Green March into Western Sahara on November 18th. Franco died on November 20th.
Economic Transformation
Post-war Spain was in ruins. The regime imposed autarchy, leading to price controls, the creation of the National Institute of Industry (INI) in 1941, and widespread black markets, corruption, and hunger. Rationing was implemented.
The 1951 political shift allowed partial price liberalization and increased trade. Rationing ended in 1952, and by 1954, economic levels surpassed those of 1935. US aid arrived in 1951. However, true economic progress awaited the technocrats who entered the government after the 1957 crisis.
The Stabilization Plan of 1959, under IMF and World Bank guidance, liberalized the economy and devalued the peseta. Foreign investment was allowed. After a brief downturn, the economy grew rapidly from 1961, fueled by foreign capital and low wages. Internal and external migration occurred, agriculture modernized, and the balance of payments deficit was offset by tourism and remittances. Growth continued until the 1973 oil crisis.
Social Transformations
Post-war Spain was backward and poor, with rural decline and limited technical, scientific, and cultural development. The middle classes were impoverished, except for those who profited from the war and the oligarchy. The regime imposed a stifling ideological atmosphere, with Church-controlled education and a limited role for women.
The 1960s saw mass rural migration to Spanish and European cities, causing a human tragedy. Economic growth led to a baby boom, requiring more schools (where the Church lost influence). Social benefits improved in 1963.
Rapid urban growth created metropolitan areas and a housing deficit, but also speculative business opportunities.
Urbanization modernized lifestyles and mentalities, partly due to contact with tourists. Female labor participation increased, television broadcasting began, electricity and appliances became widespread, and car ownership (e.g., SEAT 600) grew. Summer vacations became common among the middle classes.
By 1970, consumer society had profoundly changed mentalities.
Opposition to the Regime
Most Republicans went into exile. The Republican government-in-exile initially hoped for intervention in Spain, but this did not materialize. Some Republicans engaged in guerrilla warfare (the Maquis), but this largely ceased by 1948.
Internal resistance was difficult due to repression. The CNT and Communist Party (PCE) organized resistance cells, with strikes occurring in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Campus protests emerged, signaling a new generation’s opposition.
In the 1960s, the PCE gained new leadership, while the PSOE remained passive. Other socialist groups emerged. The republican movement within Spain was weak. The labor movement, led by Marcelino Camacho and the CCOO, became important. The 1960s and 1970s saw increased worker mobilization, nationalist opposition in the Basque Country and Catalonia, student protests, and the rise of influential Catholic opposition movements.