Franco’s Spain: From Dictatorship to Transition (1939-1975)
The Franco Era (1939-1945)
Francisco Franco, born in Ferrol in 1892, entered the Military Academy of Toledo at fourteen and was later sent to Africa. There, he developed his military vocation and commitment, playing a key role in creating the Legion. Before the Civil War, Franco, a man of strong religious beliefs, criticized politicians for neglecting the army, fueled by anti-communism and extreme nationalism. Franco should be viewed as a soldier rather than a politician, using the military to gain political power. His personal dictatorship brought significant changes throughout Spain’s history.
The Blue Era (1939-1945)
In the post-Civil War period and into the forties, the regime had a clear totalitarian appearance. The vanquished were treated harshly, with fierce repression, including executions during the war and the imprisonment of political opponents until the fifties. Franco controlled all institutions, accountable only to God and history. The press was censored, and the Cortes had minimal influence. During these years, there was great tension between Falangists and less radical groups like monarchists. The Falange, initially imitating Italian Fascism, lost power after the bombing of the Minister of War. Foreign policy was shaped by World War II. Although Franco’s Spain remained neutral, it sympathized with the Axis. Franco held talks with Hitler and Mussolini, agreeing to send the Blue Division to Russia while respecting France’s territorial integrity. Spain’s non-intervention was also due to its disastrous economic situation, the demographic impact of war deaths and exiles, declined industrialization, and lack of European support. Franco’s autarkic economic policy and government intervention worsened the war’s devastation. Rationing was imposed for twelve years, leading to a black market, and social measures were inadequate, with the effects of the war lingering even until 1954.
Isolation and Excess (1945-1959)
This period is characterized by external isolation, the decline of Falangist institutions, and the beginning of economic policy changes. In 1945, Spain was not admitted to the UN; in 1946, France closed its borders, and democratic powers called for Franco’s removal and a transition to a liberal regime. The UN withdrew its ambassadors from Madrid, and only communist countries advocated harsher measures. Franco’s only allies were Salazar in Portugal and Perón in Argentina. Democratic countries initially supported restoring a liberal monarchy, but Franco’s refusal and external pressure hindered this. The Cold War, starting in 1948, changed the situation. Democratic countries realized Franco’s Spain was not a threat, the divided left-wing exile posed no danger, and fear of Soviet Russia led to Spain’s gradual reintegration into international organizations.
The Cold War helped Franco maintain power, leading to an agreement with Don Juan de Borbón for his son Juan Carlos to be educated in Spain. The possibility of another civil war also contributed to Franco’s continued rule. Politically, the Falange’s influence diminished, and the Catholic Church gained prominence. Fearful of the consequences of Franco’s death, Spanish society demanded a transition to democracy. Franco defined his regime as “organic democracy,” claiming it allowed popular participation through natural organs. Some measures, like the Charters of the Spanish (a bill of rights that was not implemented), offered the appearance of change. The referendum law merely adopted the Law of Succession, leaving the monarchy’s establishment in Franco’s hands. There was also internal conflict within the regime. Definitive international recognition came in 1953 with a Concordat with the Holy See and pacts with the United States, including the sale of four military bases. This period saw significant, albeit unbalanced and inflationary, national income growth due to U.S. aid and deregulation.
Economic Development and Liberalization
During the sixties, significant economic and social changes occurred. Three key factors drove development: tourism, liberalization of foreign investment, and labor migration to Europe, which brought capital inflow. This significantly increased Spanish income, aligning it more with Europe. Politically, there was a lag between social reality and legislative changes. Modest but significant reforms included the Organic Law, which established a limited monarchy, and the Press Law, which facilitated a shift in Spanish mentality. Opposition grew stronger, particularly within society and academia, with widespread protests and strikes across regions and social sectors.
The Tardofranquismo
In Franco’s final years, his decline was evident, protests increased, economic problems grew, and the opposition’s role expanded. ETA, formed in the fifties and sixties, adopted a revolutionary ideology and began using violence. Repression against ETA intensified, culminating in the last executions of terrorists in 1975. ETA played a significant role in this period, notably with the assassination of Admiral Carrero Blanco in 1973. Carrero, Franco’s long-time vice president and senior advisor, a clerical traditionalist, had become Prime Minister in 1973 and was seen as Franco’s potential successor. Carrero’s assassination, Franco’s dementia, and internal regime distrust pushed Spanish society towards change. After Carrero’s death, Arias Navarro came to power, but the regime was divided, facing discord within the Church and new challenges: rising oil prices, the execution of five terrorists in 1975, and the withdrawal from Spanish Sahara. In 1975, Franco’s health deteriorated, and he was replaced by Don Juan Carlos as acting Head of State.