Frankfurt School, Technology, and Materialism: Key Thinkers
The Frankfurt School and Technological Influence
The Frankfurt School represents a continuation of Marxist thought. It posits that the root cause of alienation is not primarily class conflict or the relations of production (private property), but rather the pervasive influence of technology. Technology, in this view, becomes a mechanical system intertwined with the capitalist system, a force that surpasses human control even during revolutions.
Herbert Marcuse, a key figure in the Frankfurt School, argues that the alienation experienced by humans is, in a sense, insurmountable because it becomes irrational to human reason itself. Both scientific and technical advancements lead to a paradox, resulting in socially and historically irrational behavior. The solution proposed by the Frankfurt School is a return to a natural society.
It is important to distinguish between Marx’s communism, which focuses on abolishing private property to create an economic community where everything is shared, and the Frankfurt School’s concept of “sexual communism.”
Philosophical Implications of Technology: Marvin Harris’s Perspective
Anthropologist Marvin Harris argues that technology, while not necessarily leading to progress for the individual, has had a beneficial effect on society as a whole. He identifies three key stages in technological development:
- Hunter-gatherer societies
- Agrarian societies (based on the domestication of animals and plants)
- Industrial society
Each stage represents a distinct technological structure. Interestingly, Harris notes that leisure time increased for hunter-gatherers, who needed to spend only about three hours a day securing food. Neolithic farmers, in contrast, spent an average of six hours a day cultivating crops like cereals and rice. In the 19th century, industrial workers often labored for 12 to 14 hours a day for minimal wages. Thus, while technology has contributed to historical progress, it has also led to a reduction in free time for individuals.
According to Harris, hunter-gatherer societies thrived due to a technology that necessitated sharing and solidarity. The moral value of cooperation was rooted in its utility for the group, as selfish behavior benefited no one. These societies lived in a form of primitive communism, characterized by the absence of private property and the sharing of resources.
18th-Century Materialism: La Mettrie’s “L’Homme Machine”
Julien Offray de La Mettrie, an 18th-century materialist author, wrote an essay titled L’Homme Machine (Man a Machine). In it, he proposed a hypothesis contrary to Descartes, arguing that humans are essentially complex machines. He questioned why, if we could manufacture a machine capable of complex tasks, we couldn’t conceive of a machine capable of thought. La Mettrie further suggested that thinking itself could be explained by material causes.
Leibniz and the Simplification of Mathematical Operations
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a prominent philosopher and mathematician, proposed that all mathematical operations could be simplified.
Babbage and the Mechanical Analog Computer
Charles Babbage is renowned for his work on a mechanical analog computer in the 18th and 19th centuries. His invention demonstrated that a material instrument could perform calculations, much like a modern computer.
19th-Century Speculation: Samuel Butler’s “Erewhon”
Samuel Butler, in his satirical novel Erewhon (an anagram of “nowhere”), explored a world without machines. In chapters 24 and 25, he speculated that machines might evolve through a form of artificial selection imposed by humans. Butler posited that machines in his own century might eventually not only mimic physical strength but also human mental processes.
20th-Century Breakthrough: Alan Turing and the First Computer
Alan Turing, a pioneering computer scientist, built the first operational computer using mechanical valves (comprising 15,000 stations). This machine played a crucial role in intercepting and deciphering German communications during World War II, providing valuable intelligence on German intentions. Turing, who was homosexual, was later employed by the CIA. Due to his knowledge of sensitive information, there were attempts to eliminate him. He tragically died after biting into a poisoned apple, an event that some speculate is the inspiration for the Apple computer company’s logo.