French Colonial Expansion: A Historical Overview
First Stage: The Reign of Louis Philippe
During Louis Philippe’s reign, the occupation of Algeria began, attracting English settlers. Algeria became a crucial grain producer for France.
Second Stage: Napoleon III
Napoleon III attempted to conquer Egypt but was defeated by the British. However, the Suez Canal was constructed by Frenchman Ferdinand de Lesseps. France established a protectorate in Egypt and also held territories in the French Congo, Oceania, Cochin, and Cambodia.
Third Stage: The Third Republic
Under the Third Republic, the French colonial empire expanded further. Tunisia was occupied, sparking protests in Italy. Expansion into the Sahara began from Senegal and Algeria. France lost control of Egypt but gained territories in the equatorial zone west of Sudan and Algeria. An agreement with Britain granted the latter control over Egypt, while France gained influence in Morocco. This sparked Bismarck’s protest due to German interests in Moroccan mines. The Algeciras Conference of 1906, attended by England, France, Germany, and Spain, addressed Moroccan independence and European protectorates. France gained control over most of Morocco, leading to tensions with Germany. A second phase of the conference resulted in the division of Africa: Northern Morocco went to Spain, France retained the rest of Morocco, and Germany received a strip of the French Congo (Cameroon). In 1877, France acquired what became known as the Union of Indochina (Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia) and later Thailand. By the end of the century, French expansion included Madagascar.
Key Differences Between French and British Colonial Policies
French policy differed from British policy in its treatment of native aristocracies and the establishment of centralized administrative systems in its colonies. France also exhibited a more humane approach to granting independence.
Growth of the French Colonial Empire
By 1870, France held only 1 million square kilometers of colonial territory. By the early 20th century, this had increased to 10.5 million square kilometers, exceeding the proportional growth of the British Empire. This was driven by geographical companies, a civilizing mission, the promotion of the French language, and France’s financial strength.
German Colonial Expansion
Bismarck recognized the economic importance of colonies and convened a conference to distribute uncolonized territories among nations lacking colonies. King Leopold II of Belgium was granted the Congo. Bismarck also established protectorates in Namibia, Cameroon, Togo, and Tanzania, seized Pacific islands, and secured a foothold in Chinese trade through Qingdao.
Russian Colonial Expansion
Russia expanded towards the Mediterranean at the expense of the Turkish empire, reaching the Balkans and facing opposition from Western powers, particularly Austria-Hungary. Expansion towards India led to the occupation of Turkestan in Central Asia, where it was halted by Britain. Expansion towards China resulted in the occupation of Manchuria, Port Arthur, and the Russian Dalian. These interests clashed with Japan, leading to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), marking the beginning of Japanese dominance in the Far East.
Historical Implications and Impact
Cultural Influence
European culture, expertise, and ideologies spread through the colonies, influencing future emancipation and independence movements. However, this cultural imposition was not peaceful, as indigenous rights were often disregarded.
Economic Impact
Colonies did not always provide significant economic enrichment for the metropoles, especially initially, due to the high costs of infrastructure development. However, they offered high profitability and served as an “exhaust valve” for overpopulation in European cities. Dual societies with distinct political and economic systems emerged in the colonies.
Ethical Considerations
The methods used in modernizing colonies were often inhumane, raising ethical questions about the justification of colonialism.
British Rule
Great Britain’s colonial expansion predates other European powers. By 1850, Britain had a global commercial network, slave-plantation colonies, white settler colonies (Canada, Australia, South Africa), and control over India through the East India Company. By 1876, the British Empire encompassed 20% of the Earth’s surface and nearly a quarter of the world’s population. India became a central hub of the empire. In 1858, a rebellion in India led to the centralization of Indian administration in London. Queen Victoria was crowned Empress of India in 1876. Within 50 years, British rule extended to 33.5 million square miles and nearly 400 million people. Early African possessions included Gambia, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and the Cape Colony. Interest in these territories waned with the abolition of slavery. However, they served as a platform for British expansion from Egypt to the Cape.