French Revolution (1789-1799): From Monarchy to Republic
1. The French Revolution (1789-1799)
1.1 Introduction
The French Revolution marked the end of the Ancien Régime, dominated by the clergy and nobility. This revolution paved the way for new social and economic systems rooted in liberalism. Economic liberalism, based on the concept of self-interest, was championed by thinkers like Adam Smith. Social changes arose, with liberal ideas circulating among the bourgeoisie.
1.2 Causes of the Revolution
By 1780, France faced several problems that fueled the revolutionary movement. These included a financial crisis, industrial decline, and a subsistence crisis (food shortage), leading to rising prices. The French financial deficit was severe, and Louis XVI’s ministers struggled to find solutions. The privileged classes resisted taxation, further exacerbating the crisis. Louis XVI, unwilling to relinquish power, convened the Estates-General.
1.3 Call of the Estates-General
In 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General, using the outdated 1614 format. The bourgeoisie, representing 98% of the population, demanded joint meetings and voting by delegate, not Estate. They aimed to gain power and create a constitution, challenging the king’s authority. The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, symbolizing the intent to dismantle the old order and establish national sovereignty. The king retreated to Versailles, while the Third Estate, joined by some clergy and nobility, met at the Jeu de Paume and pledged to draft a constitution, forming the National Constituent Assembly.
1.4 Rupture: July 1789
Louis XVI and the nobility resisted the Assembly’s demands. The king mobilized troops, prompting the people of Paris to storm the Bastille to acquire weapons. This event is considered the start of the French Revolution. The Parisian bourgeoisie formed the Paris Commune and the National Guard. The revolt spread to other cities. Rumors of foreign troops supporting the nobility led to rural uprisings, with peasants attacking noble properties to abolish feudal rights. The National Assembly, amid this chaos, began governing and transforming France into a constitutional monarchy.
1.5 Popular Movements
1.6 The Legislative Assembly (October 1791 – August 1792)
Members of the former Estates-General formed the Legislative Assembly, facing internal and external pressures. They abolished feudal rights and declared the Rights of Man and Citizen. Conflicts arose with nobles and refractory priests. Austria and Prussia pressured France in favor of Louis XVI. The Assembly declared war on Austria, hoping for new markets, while Louis XVI hoped for the restoration of absolutist power. The war’s initial failures led to popular discontent. On August 10, 1792, an insurrection led to the king’s imprisonment and the proclamation of the Republic.
1.7 The Convention (1792-1795)
The Convention abolished the monarchy and established the Republic. Louis XVI was tried, convicted of treason, and executed. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, gained influence with the support of the sans-culottes. The Girondins, facing a royalist uprising in the Vendée, lost power to the Jacobins. Robespierre’s Reign of Terror aimed to suppress counter-revolutionaries. A Revolutionary Tribunal condemned suspected enemies of the revolution. By late 1793, the revolutions were controlled.
1.7.1 The Fall of the Jacobins
Robespierre’s increasing power led to his downfall. He eliminated rivals, including Danton. On 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794), the Convention accused Robespierre of betraying the revolution. He and his supporters were executed.
1.8 The Thermidorian Convention (July 1794 – October 1795)
The Thermidorian Reaction saw the rise of moderate forces. Economic difficulties and social unrest persisted. Royalists attempted a comeback but were stopped by Napoleon Bonaparte. A new constitution, the Constitution of the Year III, was drafted, leading to the Directory.
1.9 The Directory (October 1795 – November 1799)
The Directory faced economic and political problems, with opposition from Jacobins and sans-culottes. Napoleon’s military successes increased his popularity. Political instability led to the idea of the army restoring order. Napoleon, with the support of the bourgeoisie, staged a coup on 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), dissolving the Directory and establishing the Consulate.
1.10 The Consulate (1799-1804)
Napoleon consolidated power, becoming First Consul, then Consul for Life, and finally Emperor in 1804. He centralized power, implemented reforms like the Civil Code, and modernized the state. The Consulate marked the consolidation of the French Revolution’s achievements.