French Revolution: A Summary of its Causes, Stages, and Impact
1. Summary of the French Revolution
Causes of the Revolution
- Deep economic crisis of 1789
- Crop production issues
- Political marginalization of the bourgeoisie
- Monarchy’s financial crisis due to state and court costs
- Tax reform and aristocratic privilege
The French Revolution began with an aristocratic revolt against taxation. Louis XVI convened the Estates-General in 1789, comprised of the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. The Third Estate demanded double representation and voting by individual, asserting national sovereignty. The monarch and nobility conceded only to double representation, leading the Third Estate to form the National Assembly and pledge to create a constitution.
The End of the Old Regime
On July 14, 1789, the Third Estate stormed the Bastille, sparking a popular revolt against feudalism. The National Assembly abolished feudal privileges and enacted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
2. Stages of the French Revolution
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
The National Assembly reformed France into a constitutional monarchy. The 1791 constitution established separation of powers, national sovereignty, and social equality, but the king retained veto power. A Legislative Assembly was formed, and a civil constitution separated church and state. Political factions included absolutists (nobility and clergy) and patriots (constitutional monarchists and republicans). War with Austria led to the king’s imprisonment and the proclamation of the republic.
Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
The Girondins called for elections under universal male suffrage. King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed, prompting a European monarchical alliance against France. Internal and external conflicts arose. In 1793, the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, seized power, instituting the Reign of Terror. Opposition to the radicalization led to the defeat and execution of Robespierre and other Jacobin leaders.
Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
The conservative bourgeoisie drafted a new constitution, establishing the Directory and restoring census suffrage. Napoleon Bonaparte’s 1799 coup ended the Directory and initiated the Consulate.
3. The Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon consolidated revolutionary achievements, allowing the return of exiles, signing a Concordat with the Church, enacting the Civil Code, and reforming the treasury and education system. He crowned himself emperor in 1804.
Napoleon’s empire expanded across Europe, excluding Britain. He imposed revolutionary ideas, including economic and religious freedom. Nationalist sentiment against French occupation grew, leading to Napoleon’s defeat in Russia and Spain. He abdicated in 1814, briefly returned in 1815, and was defeated at Waterloo, dying in exile in 1821.