French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire: Causes, Phases, and Key Events
French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire
The French Revolution began in 1789, but the country was not pacified until 1795, with the establishment of the Directory. The Revolution aimed to transform France’s social and political structure, abolishing the old regime and implementing Enlightenment ideals.
Causes of the French Revolution
Economic Factors
France faced bankruptcy due to excessive war spending and royal extravagance. Poor harvests led to soaring food prices, triggering widespread riots.
Social Factors
Significant class inequality existed, with the nobility and clergy enjoying privileges and exemptions from taxes. The bourgeoisie lacked political power, fueling discontent.
Political and Ideological Factors
Enlightenment ideas provided the intellectual basis for challenging the Old Regime.
Phases of the Revolution
In 1789, King Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to address fiscal issues. The Third Estate demanded voting by individual representatives, not by estate, leading to the outbreak of the Revolution.
Phase 1: National Assembly (1789-1791)
The Third Estate formed the National Assembly, claiming to represent the French people. The storming of the Bastille on July 14th marked a turning point. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was drafted, promoting liberty, property, and equality. The 1791 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy, ending absolutism.
Phase 2: Convention (1792-1795)
The Girondins, moderate revolutionaries, initially led the Convention. The monarchy was abolished, and the republic was established. The rise of the Jacobins under Robespierre led to the Reign of Terror, a period of extreme violence and executions. The 1793 Constitution was drafted but not fully implemented. Robespierre was eventually overthrown and executed.
Phase 3: Directory (1795-1799)
The Directory restored peace and implemented the 1795 Constitution, which established a census-based voting system and a five-member executive. The legislative power was divided between the Council of 500 and the Council of Elders. Judges were elected by the people.
Phase 4: Consulate (1799-1804)
Napoleon Bonaparte, a military leader, seized power in a coup, establishing the Consulate. He became First Consul for life. The Consulate ended with Napoleon declaring himself Emperor.