French Revolution and Restoration Europe: Causes and Stages

Posted on Feb 23, 2025 in History

French Revolution: Causes and Stages

Causes: Political and Ideological: The Enlightenment provided the theoretical basis for ending absolutism, and the American Revolution demonstrated that these ideas could be implemented.

Social: Widespread social discontent:

  1. The nobility and clergy had lost power due to royal absolutism and faced financial difficulties due to high expenses.
  2. The bourgeoisie lacked political influence, and economic activities were hampered by mercantilism.
  3. The peasantry lived in subsistence and were burdened by taxes, while urban groups lived in miserable conditions.

Economic: The revolution stemmed from a double economic crisis: a subsistence crisis due to poor harvests and a financial crisis caused by state indebtedness from high military spending and court expenses.

Stages of the French Revolution

  • The Estates-General (1789): After convening the Estates-General in Versailles, initial discussions focused on voting procedures. The Third Estate demanded joint deliberations and voting by head, not by estate. When their application was rejected, they vowed not to dissolve until a constitution was approved.
  • Constituent Assembly (1789-1791): This assembly abolished feudalism and manorial rights, eliminated the tithe, nationalized church assets, issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and drafted the Constitution of 1791.
  • Legislative Assembly (1791-1792): After adopting the constitution, the Constituent Assembly disbanded and was replaced by a Legislative Assembly. It faced opposition from nobles, the king, and the war against Austria and Prussia.
  • The Convention (1792-1795): The monarchy was abolished, the republic proclaimed, and Louis XVI was guillotined. This sparked war with European absolutist powers against revolutionary France.
  • Directory and the Consulate (1795-1799): Executive power was vested in a board of five members. Military campaigns were conducted in Italy, Prussia, Austria, and Egypt. Napoleon Bonaparte gained prominence, used his prestige to stage a coup, and replaced the Directory with a Consulate consisting of three consuls, eventually becoming First Consul.

Europe of the Restoration

The powers that defeated Napoleon met at the Vienna Congress with the following objectives:

  1. Restoration of Absolutism: Monarchs deposed by Napoleon were re-established, asserting their legitimacy from God and denouncing national sovereignty as usurpation.
  2. Restoring the Map of Europe: France was returned to its 1791 borders, and the victors redrew borders and divided territories according to their interests. To ensure the established order, two alliances were created:
    • The Holy Alliance (1815): Signed by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, later joined by other countries, committing members to provide assistance against revolutionary threats.
    • The Quadruple Alliance (1815): Formed by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain, aimed to defend the established order and address international issues diplomatically through conferences.