French Revolution: Causes, Stages, and Aftermath
The Outbreak of the French Revolution
Causes of the Revolution (Since 1760)
Several factors contributed to the French Revolution:
- Bad harvests pushed up the price of food.
- The bourgeoisie, enriched by the economic growth of the eighteenth century, were dissatisfied with their political marginalization because only the privileged could hold positions of power.
- The monarchy was plunged into a deep financial crisis due to high state spending. The solution proposed was tax reform, compelling the aristocracy to pay taxes.
The Beginning of the Revolution (1789)
The French Revolution began with a revolt of the privileged aristocracy. They refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates-General.
The Estates-General opened in Versailles in May 1789, chaired by the king and consisting of representatives of the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. The representatives of the Third Estate demanded double representation, joint deliberation, and voting by person. The monarch and part of the nobility only accepted the dual representation. The deputies of the Third Estate formed the National Assembly and pledged to draw up a constitution.
Replacing the Old Regime
The people of Paris supported the representatives of the Third Estate. On July 14, they stormed the Bastille fortress and seized arms. The revolution also extended to the countryside, leading to an anti-seigneurial revolt, which involved the burning of many noble homes.
The National Constitutional Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal privileges and promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Stages of the French Revolution
Phases of the Revolution
- Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792): Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie.
- Democratic Republic (1792-1794): Driven by the radical bourgeoisie and the popular sectors.
- Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Marked a return to power of the conservative bourgeoisie.
Constitutional Monarchy
In 1791, a constitution was promulgated, establishing:
- Separation of powers
- National sovereignty
- Legal equality of citizens
However, the king retained the right of veto. Indirect census suffrage was established, dividing citizens into those who possessed certain assets (active citizens) and those who possessed no fortune (passive citizens).
Girondins Convention
The Republic was in the hands of the Girondins, who called for universal male suffrage for the new National Convention.
Jacobin Convention
In June 1793, the Jacobins seized power and enacted a new constitution based on social democracy:
- Popular sovereignty
- Universal suffrage
- Equality
Executive power was in the hands of a Committee of Public Safety, which concentrated all power in Robespierre. To cope with external threats, the Committee approved a series of social laws, including the control of prices and wages.
The Fall of Napoleon
Napoleonic armies acted as conquerors, favoring occupied nations and the material interests of France. This unleashed strong national sentiments against the French invader in the occupied territories. Patriots from many countries opposed the French presence. The Spanish uprising in 1808 against the invasion was the first and marked the decline of the Napoleonic empire.
In 1814, after being defeated in Russia and Spain, Napoleon abandoned power. In 1815, he was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
Restoration
The period after the fall of Napoleon began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and aimed to restore absolute monarchy.
Liberalism
A political system based on individual freedom that defends the division of powers, national sovereignty, parliament, and private property.
Nationalism
A political ideology that sustains the right of peoples to decide for themselves and defend their sovereignty.
The Revolutions of 1820
In 1820, a series of uprisings led by liberal activists, especially military personnel, tried to do away with absolutism in various countries. The only victory was in Greece against the Turkish empire. Also, movements of Spanish American mainland emerged victorious.
The Revolutions of 1830
The second revolutionary wave occurred in central Europe and in France. It began in July 1830, overthrew the absolute monarch Charles X, and proclaimed a liberal monarchy under Louis Philippe. In Belgium, the revolution was victorious, and the country became independent of Holland.