French Revolution: Causes, Stages, and Legacy
French Revolution: Causes
The French Revolution, starting in 1789, was precipitated by a combination of economic and social crises. The French monarchy faced a severe financial crisis, exacerbated by court costs and expenses from supporting the independence of the United States. Crop failures led to rising prices and widespread popular discontent. The bourgeoisie, a wealthy but politically marginalized class, embraced Enlightenment ideals and sought greater political influence.
Proposed Solution
A proposed solution was tax reform, requiring the privileged classes (nobility and clergy) to pay taxes.
Start of the Revolution
The revolution began with the revolt of the aristocracy, who refused to pay taxes and demanded that King Louis XVI convene the Estates-General. This was a meeting of representatives from the three estates: the clergy, nobility (a minority), and the Third Estate (the common people). In May 1789, the Estates-General opened in Versailles. Each estate initially had a single vote, but representatives of the Third Estate, constituting the majority, demanded voting by person.
The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and undertook to draft a constitution reflecting the will of the majority. On July 14, with the storming of the Bastille, the revolutionary process was defended both in Paris and in the countryside. The Constituent Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal privileges and promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, recognizing individual and collective freedom, and equality before the law and taxes.
Objectives
The objective was to transform France into a liberal system. This was challenging due to opposition from the King and the privileged classes.
Development
- Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792): Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie. In 1791, the legislature enacted a constitution establishing separation of powers and census suffrage (voting rights for those possessing wealth, known as active citizens). Those without wealth had no political rights and were considered passive citizens. Church property was confiscated.
Key political groups included:
- Girondins: Moderate bourgeoisie.
- Jacobins: More radical, led by Robespierre.
- Cordeliers: Extremists, supporters of the republic.
- Sans-culottes: Paris militias.
General Discontent
The Constitutional Monarchy failed due to several factors: the nobility’s desire to regain privileges, the clergy’s opposition to the sale of their property, and popular sectors demanding greater reforms.
Consequences
The monarchy fell in August 1792 when the sans-culottes stormed the royal palace and proclaimed the republic.
- Democratic Republic (1792-1794): The assembly was renamed the National Convention.
Two stages:
- Gironde Convention: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were judged and executed. This led to an alliance of European monarchies against revolutionary France.
- Jacobin Convention: The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, concentrated executive power. Robespierre organized the army, ordered mass conscription (forced recruitment into the army), and imposed the Reign of Terror. Social laws were also approved.
In 1794, the Jacobins fell due to the radicalization of the revolution, the Terror, and Robespierre’s dictatorship. The Thermidorian Reaction saw Robespierre executed.
- Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Characterized by a return to the principles of the 1791 Constitution. Political liberalism was emphasized, with power vested in the moderate or conservative bourgeoisie.
During this period of economic crisis, social unrest, and war against absolutist powers, the army, due to its victories, gained prestige. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, backed by the bourgeoisie, staged a coup that ended the Directory and inaugurated the Consulate (1799-1804).