French Revolution: From Ancien Régime to Napoleon
French Revolution: The End of Ancien Régime
The French Revolution marked the first assault on the ancien régime in Europe, serving as a model and stimulus to enlightened minorities in other countries. It signaled the beginning of the modern era in Europe. In 1789, France was a country of the old regime, but the eighteenth century saw an economic boom and population growth that generated social unrest.
Causes
Economic: France experienced a crisis. Poor harvests led to rising prices, and the state had a chronic deficit, with the cost of the army and the court exceeding income.
Social: Society was concerned about the economic crisis. The nobility and clergy increased pressure on the peasantry, who were increasingly suffocated and burst into periodic revolts. The bourgeoisie, with economic power, denied the existence of privileges and wanted to participate in political power. The popular classes organized riots. The growing, young population desired change.
Cultural: The triumph and spread of enlightened ideas generated a stream of criticism of the situation.
Political: Absolutism excluded the nobility from power, leading to their dissatisfaction. The bourgeoisie was also unhappy as they bore the burden of state taxes.
Beginnings
The revolt began with the privileged few addressing the state deficit. Finance ministers of the 16th century tried to impose a new tax on the privileged classes, who refused. In 1787, the king summoned an assembly of nobles to try to pass the tax, but they rejected it. Lafayette proposed convening the Estates-General, the only body that could approve new taxes. This call required an electoral process to elect representatives of various strata. During this process, Cahiers de Doléances were drafted, outlining each group’s demands. The nobility and clergy rejected absolutism and privileges. The bourgeoisie sought political power. The peasantry, burdened by high taxes, and the landless peasantry aimed to acquire land.
- Bourgeois Revolt: On May 5, 1789, the Estates-General was inaugurated at Versailles. The privileged classes called for separate meetings and voting by estate. The Third Estate demanded joint meetings and individual voting. On June 17, the Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly and required the other two estates to join. The king accepted the legality of this assembly.
- Popular Revolt: The people of Paris decided to seize arms stored in the Invalides and ammunition stored in the Bastille. On July 14, 1789, masses stormed the Bastille. In August, revolutions spread to the countryside, known as the Great Fear. Peasants attacked noble properties, destroying documents that established their obligations to the nobles.
Phases of the Revolution
1. Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
The National Assembly’s first task was to draft a constitution and make laws to transform the old regime. On August 4, 1789, the Assembly abolished the privileges of the estate society. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted on August 26, 1789. Church property was nationalized and sold in exchange for assignats. Priests became state officials, required to swear allegiance to the constitution and receive a salary from the state. Most of the clergy refused (refractory clergy) and conspired against the revolution.
2. Republican Convention (1792-1794)
The Assembly, relying on the urban popular classes, initiated war and defeated the Prussian army, occupying Frankfurt. Robespierre gained power and staged a coup. The Republic was proclaimed, and the Assembly became a Convention. Executive power was held by the Committee of Public Safety. A new calendar based on nature was established, with 1793 becoming Year 1. Three key issues defined this period: levée en masse (conscription), a command economy (price and wage controls), and the Reign of Terror. Robespierre established a dictatorship based on terror. The Convention put the king and his family on trial, leading to their execution. Injustices and economic crisis continued. Wages exceeded the maximum, leading to riots. The bourgeoisie took power in 1794 in the Thermidorian Reaction.
3. The Directory (1795-1799)
A moderate constitution was established, decentralizing power and multiplying committees. The Declaration of Rights was removed, making this constitution more conservative than that of 1789. Jacobins wanted to continue the revolution, while royalists sought to restore the monarchy. The bourgeoisie sought the support of the army, leading to Napoleon’s coup in 1799 and the beginning of a bourgeois dictatorship.
Political Groups
- Girondins: Right-wing, representing the bourgeoisie, advocating for decentralization and spreading the revolution.
- Jacobins: Favoring centralization and consolidation of the revolution, representing the middle classes, led by Robespierre.
- Cordeliers: Democrats, representing the masses, relying on the sans-culottes.
Many deputies did not belong to any group and voted according to their interests. There was also a group in favor of absolutism and counter-revolution. The authorities faced counter-revolutionary efforts, including the king’s attempts to undermine the revolution. The king’s flight on June 20, 1792, led to his arrest at Varennes, further radicalizing the revolution. The Assembly organized an army, issuing a levée en masse that caused a peasant uprising instigated by the refractory clergy.