French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Spanish War of Independence
The Directory and the Consulate
After Robespierre, a conservative government was imposed in France. It was the Directory, formed by five members, including Napoleon. Napoleon, a general who had defeated Austria, was highly influential. However, revolutionaries and monarchists wanted to regain control. Consequently, Napoleon organized a coup, which led to a new government, the Consulate, formed by three people. Napoleon became the First Consul in 1799.
Napoleon’s Ascendancy
In 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life after his victory in Italy. In 1804, he declared himself Emperor. He established the Civil Code, covering marriage, divorce, education, and inheritance. Napoleon conquered many areas of Europe, spreading enlightened policies. However, Britain, Austria, and Prussia tried to prevent his expansion. Napoleon also faced significant problems when he invaded Spain and Russia. Finally, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
Consequences of the French Revolution
The French Revolution had several key consequences:
- Disintegration of the Old Regime: New forms of government were based on popular sovereignty, separation of powers, limited male suffrage, and civil rights.
- Origin of Political Groups: It marked the origin of political groups and their ideologies.
- Taxation: All citizens, including the nobility and clergy, had to pay taxes.
- Economic Changes: Private property and free trade were guaranteed. Guilds were abolished.
- End of the Estate System: The traditional estate system ceased to exist.
Napoleon in Spain
Napoleon’s Occupation of Spain
Charles IV and his minister Manuel Godoy initially supported Napoleon against Britain. However, Spain was defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, allowing French troops to enter the peninsula to invade Portugal. In 1808, Charles IV was deposed by his son Ferdinand VII. Charles asked Napoleon for help to recover the kingdom, and both Charles and Ferdinand were summoned by Napoleon.
The Spanish War of Independence
The war ended thanks to British support, with troops led by the Duke of Wellington. Spain also defeated France through guerrilla warfare, relying on surprise attacks and sabotage.
The Courts of Cadiz
In 1808, a Central Council was formed in Spain to represent Ferdinand VII, who was detained in France. This council ruled in Ferdinand’s name, conducted the war against France, and convened the Courts in Cadiz in 1810, representing the Spanish people. On March 19th, the Courts of Cadiz approved the first Spanish Constitution, establishing popular sovereignty, separation of powers, equality under the law, and freedom of thought. However, when Ferdinand VII returned to Spain after the French defeat, he rejected the Constitution and ruled as an absolute monarch.
Francisco de Goya
Goya was born in Fuendetodos. He learned to paint in Zaragoza and later moved to Madrid, where he became court painter to Charles IV. Goya remained in Spain during the War of Independence. He also became deaf, and these two factors significantly affected his career. In his last years, he moved to Bordeaux. Goya’s paintings are grouped into three periods:
- Court Period (1771-1808): Goya created cartoons for tapestries in the Royal Factory, portraits of the royal family and nobility, and prints from etchings. He used pastel colors, depicted people’s psychology, focused on popular festivals, and criticized Spanish customs.
- The War of Independence (1808-1820): Goya painted historical themes and more prints from etchings. Action was prominent, and he protested against war and the Old Regime.
- Retirement and Exile to France (1820-1828): Goya created “The Black Paintings” for his house in Madrid. In France, he painted works like The Milkmaid of Bordeaux. Colors became darker, with themes of death, cruelty, and violence. Brushstrokes became thick, and figures were less defined.