French Revolution & Napoleonic Era: 1789-1815
The French Revolution: Two Stages – Republic and Reign of Terror (1792-1795)
In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France, aiming to restore the old regime. Supported by the people of Paris, the Assembly, renamed the Convention, abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the Republic. King Louis XVI was accused of treason and guillotined in January 1793. This marked the beginning of a period known as the Reign of Terror, lasting until the summer of 1794. Revolutionary figures like Marat, Danton, and Robespierre rose to prominence. Revolutionary courts were established, and Danton himself was eventually guillotined.
The Directory: A Moderate Revolution (1795-1799)
The Directory aimed to eliminate Robespierre’s influence. Power shifted to five moderate members who constituted the Directory, the French government from 1794 to 1799.
The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup in 1799, ending the Directory and ushering in the Napoleonic Era.
The Empire of Napoleon (1799-1815)
Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor in 1804.
Napoleon’s Domestic Policies
Napoleon focused on stabilizing the economy by reforming the treasury, promoting production and trade, and establishing the Bank of France and a new currency.
Napoleon’s Foreign Policy
Napoleon aimed to unify Europe under French authority, spreading revolutionary ideals. He faced opposition from the United Kingdom, Spain, and Russia.
The War of Independence in Spain
The Mutiny of Aranjuez was instigated against Charles IV and Godoy for allowing French troops to pass through the peninsula to invade Portugal. The mutiny was led by Ferdinand VII, son of Charles. Napoleon summoned them to Bayonne, where he forced them to renounce the Spanish crown and appointed his brother, Joseph I, as king.
The Beginning of the War (2 May 1808)
The people of Madrid revolted against the presence of the foreign army and the kidnapping of the royal family by Napoleon. This marked the beginning of the war.
The Independence of the USA
In the 17th century, 13 prosperous colonies were established, supplying raw materials to the metropolis. The British King, George III, raised taxes on the American colonies, including those on tea. The American bourgeoisie protested against these new taxes, arguing they had no right to representation in the English Parliament. The Boston Tea Party incident escalated tensions. The Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1783, with England recognizing the sovereignty of the United States.
The French Revolution: Origins
In 1787, due to expenses from the war with England and support for American independence, Louis XVI convened the Assembly of Notables (nobility and higher clergy) to propose that they also pay taxes. The notables refused to renounce their privileges, forcing the King to call the Estates-General, a meeting of the three estates: nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate.
The Tennis Court Oath
The Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly and vowed not to disband until a constitution for France was drafted.
The Bourgeois Revolution: Moderate Phase (1789-1792)
Louis XVI, while appearing to accept the revolutionary demands, secretly mobilized troops to Paris. This led to the storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal power, on July 14, 1789.
Reforms of the French National Assembly
- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, based on equality and freedom.
- Abolition of feudal privileges.
- Establishment of a constitutional monarchy, replacing the absolute power of the King with national sovereignty.
- Voting rights for men over 25 who paid taxes.
- Separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches.