French Revolution, Napoleonic Era, and Vienna Congress

Posted on Apr 4, 2025 in History

Principles of Liberalism

Key tenets included:

  • Separation of powers
  • National sovereignty (vested in citizens)
  • Suffrage (voting rights)
  • Separation of church and state
  • Freedom of expression
  • Existence of a constitution

The French Revolution (1789-1791)

Causes of the Revolution

  • Economic Reasons: A significant financial crisis lasting seven years, coupled with subsistence crises.
  • Socio-political Reasons: Widespread social unrest, particularly among the bourgeoisie who desired greater political influence. The church and nobility refused to pay taxes.
  • Ideological Reasons: Influence of the Enlightenment, fostering criticism against organized religion, absolute monarchy, and the existing societal structure.

Estates-General and National Assembly

King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General (an assembly representing the three estates). Each estate prepared a list of grievances (cahiers de doléances). The Third Estate demanded voting by head (one person, one vote) rather than by estate. When this was rejected, they declared themselves the National Assembly, famously taking the Tennis Court Oath. Meanwhile, popular unrest erupted, marked by events like the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789.

Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)

The King compelled the other estates to join the National Assembly, which then became the Constituent Assembly. In August 1789, it decreed the abolition of feudal rights, effectively ending feudalism and symbolizing the demise of the Ancien Régime. It also issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. A new constitution was drafted in 1791, establishing France as a constitutional monarchy.

The French Revolution (1791-1799)

With the constitution established, the Constituent Assembly dissolved, replaced by the elected Legislative Assembly.

The Convention: Girondins (1792-1793)

Amidst war and radicalization, the monarchy was overthrown in August 1792. Power shifted to the National Convention, dominated initially by the Girondins. The Convention abolished the monarchy, declared France a Republic (First French Republic), and put King Louis XVI on trial. His execution in January 1793 provoked the formation of the First Coalition against France.

The Convention: Jacobins and Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

Internal and external pressures led to the rise of the radical Jacobins, led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre. They seized control and inaugurated the Reign of Terror (La Terreur), a period marked by revolutionary dictatorship, suppression of dissent, and mass executions via the guillotine. Growing discontent and opposition within the Convention led to the Thermidorian Reaction (July 1794), culminating in Robespierre’s overthrow and execution.

The Directory (1795-1799)

Following the Thermidorian Reaction, a more moderate republican regime, known as the Directory, was established. A new constitution (Constitution of the Year III, 1795) vested executive power in a five-member Directory and legislative power in two councils (the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients). Census suffrage (restricting voting based on property) was reintroduced. This period was marked by political instability and reliance on the military.

The Consulate (1799-1804)

General Napoleon Bonaparte, leveraging his military success and the Directory’s weakness, staged the Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 1799). This overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate. Initially, power was shared among three Consuls, but Napoleon quickly consolidated authority as First Consul. A new constitution (Constitution of the Year VIII) created a system with limited legislative power. The French Revolution effectively concluded as Napoleon centralized control, later becoming First Consul for Life in 1802.

The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1814/15)

In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French. He sought to create a vast continental empire through an aggressive expansionist policy, leading to the prolonged Napoleonic Wars against various European coalitions. He attempted to cripple Great Britain economically through the Continental System (a large-scale embargo) and installed family members as rulers in conquered territories. However, the Empire faced growing challenges: the rise of nationalism in occupied lands, the constant drain of warfare on French resources, the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, and the unified opposition of European powers. Napoleon was forced to abdicate in April 1814. The Bourbon monarchy was restored under Louis XVIII. Napoleon escaped exile and briefly returned to power in 1815 (the Hundred Days), but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, leading to his final exile.

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Following Napoleon’s initial defeat and final downfall, the victorious powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, later joined by restored France) convened the Congress of Vienna to establish a new European order and lasting peace.

Territorial Reorganization

The Congress redrew the map of Europe:

  • France was reduced largely to its 1790 borders.
  • The Austrian Empire gained territories in Italy (Lombardy-Venetia) and Dalmatia.
  • Russia gained control over most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Congress Poland).
  • Prussia acquired significant territories, including parts of Saxony, Westphalia, and the Rhineland.
  • A German Confederation was created.
  • The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed.

Post-Napoleonic Alliances and Principles

Alliances

  • The Quadruple Alliance: Formed by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia to maintain the Vienna settlement and prevent future French aggression. France later joined, forming the Quintuple Alliance.
  • The Holy Alliance: Initiated by Tsar Alexander I of Russia, joined primarily by Austria and Prussia, promoting Christian principles in political affairs, often interpreted as a tool against revolution and liberalism.

Political Principles

The Congress aimed to restore stability based on several principles:

  • Restoration: Reinstating the monarchies deposed by the revolution and Napoleon where feasible.
  • Legitimacy: Affirming the traditional rights of ruling families.
  • Balance of Power: Preventing any single nation from dominating Europe.
  • Interventionism: Asserting the right of the great powers to intervene in other states to quell revolutions (opposed by Great Britain).
  • Congress System: Establishing regular diplomatic conferences among the great powers to resolve disputes peacefully.