French Revolution Phases & Key German Unification Steps
Phases of the French Revolution
Liberal Revolution (1789-1792)
Key bodies included the States General, the National Assembly, and the Legislative Assembly.
Radical Revolution (1792-1794)
Dominated by The Convention and the Committee of Public Safety (leading to the Terror).
Thermidorian Reaction (1794-1799)
Characterized by The Directory.
Napoleon’s Rule (1799-1814)
Included The Consulate (until 1804) and subsequently The Empire.
Key Concepts of the French Revolution
Motto: Liberty, Equality, and Brotherhood.
Directory: The final government of the French Revolution.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Laws enacted during the French Revolution that placed the Catholic Church under government control.
Committee for Public Safety: The group within the revolutionary government that oversaw the activities of the Reign of Terror in 1793 and 1794.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: A foundational document of the French Revolution, outlining fundamental rights.
Girondists: A political group that opposed the radical Jacobins during the French Revolution. Large numbers of Girondists were executed during the Reign of Terror.
National Assembly: The first revolutionary government, formed by the Third Estate in May 1789.
National Convention: The third government of the French Revolution, eventually controlled by the Jacobins and the Committee for Public Safety. Under the Convention, the monarchy was dissolved, the First Republic established, the execution of the King carried out, and the Reign of Terror instigated.
Reign of Terror: A period instituted by the Jacobin Committee for Public Safety to destroy perceived enemies of the French Revolution. Thousands died by the guillotine.
Maximilien Robespierre: Jacobin leader executed for his dictatorial methods during the Terror.
Sans-culottes: Revolutionaries, typically from the lower classes. The term means ‘without short trousers’ (culottes), which were worn by wealthy men, whereas long pants were common among the poor revolutionaries.
Post-Napoleonic Europe & Nationalism
Congress of Vienna (1815)
Led by figures like Metternich (Austrian Prime Minister), it aimed to restore the Ancien Régime (old order). Italy, previously united under Napoleon’s rule, was split again.
Nationalism
The political principle stating that the political unit (state) and the national unit (people) should be congruent.
Elements Fostering Nationalism:
- Language
- Culture
- Religion
- History
- Territory
Italian Unification Leaders (Brief Mention)
- Count Cavour (‘the brain’)
- Giuseppe Mazzini (‘the heart’, founder of Young Italy nationalist party)
- Giuseppe Garibaldi (‘the muscle’, leader of the Red Shirts army)
German Unification
In the 19th century, Otto von Bismarck transformed Germany from a loose confederation of separate states into a powerful empire.
Background
Napoleon had created the Confederation of the Rhine, joining some German states. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna established the German Confederation, comprising 39 states that largely shared language and culture.
Political and Economic Factors
- Political Context: In 1849, Frederick William IV of Prussia declined the imperial crown offered by the liberal Frankfurt Parliament.
- Economic Integration: In 1834, the Zollverein (customs union) was established, reducing internal tariffs and fostering economic ties.
Bismarck’s Role
Otto von Bismarck became Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862. His primary goals included preventing the rise of socialism and liberalism and defending the interests of the Junkers (Prussian landed aristocracy).
Wars of Unification
- 1864 (Danish War): Prussia, with Austrian assistance, fought Denmark, conquering Schleswig and Holstein.
- 1866 (Austro-Prussian War): Prussia defeated Austria, leading to the dissolution of the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation.
- 1870-1871 (Franco-Prussian War): Prussia and its allies defeated France. This victory led to the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871 and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, fostering German nationalism against a common enemy.
Domestic Policies
- Kulturkampf: Bismarck’s struggle (‘culture struggle’) aimed at reducing the influence of the Catholic Church in Germany.
- Social Reforms: Implemented a path of social reform, establishing social security, accident insurance, and provisions for the elderly and disabled, partly to undermine the appeal of socialism.